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Trail of Christian Education Dissertation
THE CONTENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Dissertation)
I Introduction
II Chapter 1.
BC’s Era
Wisdom of Egyptians
A. Method of education and recording.
B. Moses our model in education.
C. Culture and language.
D. Interaction with other foreigners.
E. Geographical location (Northern Easter Africa).
F. The future in biblical perspective.
G. The Exit.
III Chapter 2
AD’s Era
The short genealogy of Moses.
The Old Testament (Hebrew Bible).
Jesus affirmed the Monotheistic theology.
Jesus’ crucial teachings opposed to Judaism.
Following a Jesus’ method of teaching.
Apostolic Period (Preaching and Teaching).
IV Chapter 3
Medieval Era
The Church Fathers’ in formulating and connotation of Scriptures.
Eight singled out African Church fathers whose influence is still today in Christianity.
Philosophers who attempted to find the existence of life.
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Different schools of thought aggrandized.
Septuagint- Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible; why and what effect it has in Christian education?
Philosophical ideas taking preference above the scriptural outset.
Formal education in the middle of Ages (500-1500).
Proponents of Christian education in the precedent of the Reformation.
V Chapter 5
Reformation Era
Faith surpasses a tradition or ritualism.
Women in the Protestant Reformation.
Higher Christian Centers were established.
VI Chapter six
21st Century Era
The future of Christian education.
How Porn is contaminating Kids.
Two-sided offer of technology.
VII Chapter 7
Conclusion
Bibliography
Title: The Trail of Christian Education
Stanley Njuguna Njoroge
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ID N1838-9261
Dr. Samuel Galloza
University Accelerated Degree Program
PhD- Christian Education
Northwestern Doctor of Philosophy Program
Copy Right: “The author hereby grants to Northwestern permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this dissertation document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created.”
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1.
Introduction
Egypt: great country of Africa would stand as the trailblazer of modern Christian education. Definition of education from BC toward AD. Our twenty- first century Educational perspective. Teacher/Learner relationship in both Secular, and Religious instructions. Use of language as the means of deculturalization.
What role do secular and religious instructions, play in world Educational Development?
1.
Chapter 1
BC’s Era:
Wisdom of Egyptians
“Starting in about 3500 B.C., various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 B.C[3] The oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 B.C. from a hieroglyphic prototype. One hieroglyphic script was used on stone monuments,[4] other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink
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on papyrus,[4] a flexible, paper-like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile”.
Method of education and recording
In ancient Egypt, literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes’ status. The rate of literacy in Pharaonic Egypt during most periods from the third to first millennium BC has been estimated at not more than one percent,[13] or between one half of one percent and one percent.[14]
Moses our model in Education
In today’s assessment, Moses could be placed among the most learned.
He attended the best University in Egypt learnt politics, Military combat and (religious instructions from his mother and his sister Miriam). Remember, a two years old child, has the capability of acquiring knowledge. His name Moses (means drawn out of the water) was given by Pharoah’s daughter while adopting him as her own son, who gradual would be the heir of the Kingdom (Ex.2:5-10 KJV).
Stephen the deacon, in his execution by stoning declared these words “and Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and in deeds” (Acts 7:22 KJV); Moses as adopted son, he is an Egyptian citizen but an Israelite in heart. He killed an Egyptian in defense of his real tribe man. This action was rehearsed in Pharoah’s ears and Moses knew in advance that he is to face death so he fled away as a vagabond.
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Culture and language
The language of a people maintains the culture and tradition in a given geographical region, countries
and Continents. By use of a language, deculturization takes place. For example, African countries such as Kenya, Nigeria and south Africa were forced by colonization or adapted English foreign language, as a national language in communication. Therefore, language become one of the key factors of an influence to change peoples’ culture, and bring in new ideas of which, steadily bring development in educational, social, political, economic and religious beliefs.
“In ancient Egypt hieroglyphic signs were primarily pictorial and ideographic, signs, some of them served as acrophones which do not represent whole words but only their initial sounds. The reader is left to interpret the sign from the context in acrophonic system (abbreviation) and give sound.
Alphabetic abbreviations became possible around 100 BC and was common in the classical world.
Greek letters IXθYE( make the word for (‘fish’) stood for Ἰησοῦς Χριστός Θεοῦ ( Jesus Christ Son of God Saviour), and as a result of their use , the fish became a Christian symbol. The Latin INRI in Roman language Iesus Nazaraeus Rex Iudaeorum (Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews).”
Short form AD stands for ‘Anno Domini’, that is, from the year of our Lord. Then native creations such as BC which stands for ‘Before Christ’. All such devices have become over the centuries so institutionalized
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that they are seldom considered as original. On the Cross of Jesus three languages were in scripted by King Herod, namely, in Hebrew, Latin and Greek. “THI IS JESUS THE KING OF THE JEWS” (Matt. 27: 37).
Interaction with other foreigners
We do know the language of any group of people does demonstrate the power of communication. If animals have the capability of understanding human language, they could be able to lodge their appreciation and mistreatment, and claim their equal rights to live in cities just as men rather than in jungles. Thus, education is very important to elevate human beings vertically and horizontally
Since Egypt was one of the civilized countries in Africa and world, where education was highly esteemed; it is not a surprise to see philosophers such as Pilato, Aristotle and others, all gained their philosophical ideas from Egyptians wisdom and went back to Greece (Europe) and they formulated what we call western philosophy (Greek). Oral and pictorial education had to be substituted to a more technical biding recording.
“The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others.
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The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended.” Thus, Egypt became the trailblazer of modern education.
Geographical location
Northern East Africa and East Africa
Figure 1
Former East Africa countries consists of Kenya, Uganda Tanzania, recently includes: Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan (Because of economical purposes, EAC); horn of Africa composed of Ethiopia, Djibouti,
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Eritrea and Somalia. If there would be Super Highways from Kenya through Sudan or Ethiopia heading North East would definitely reach Cairo, Egypt; the largest city in Africa. Think of those old days, without cars neither planes, yet people trekked to neighborhood countries.
The location of ancient Egypt was in North-Eastern Africa, having formed and flourished along the lower portion of the Nile River. It made up most of what is now the modern Arab Republic of Egypt. Ancient Egypt had four main divisions of its land, the first two being the Upper and Lower Egypt.
That means Moses was able to trek from Egypt to Midian-Palestine, spent forty years in the wilderness as a shepherd. I would call this time, God’s theological seminary for Moses to be shaped as a future leader.
Figure 2
The Black Land – The Black Land was the soil and land all along the banks of the Nile River. The soil is extremely fertile, especially after the Nile River flooded. Egypt is south of the Mediterranean Sea, west of the Red Sea, east of Libya, and north of Sudan. It is located in the North Eastern corner of Africa.
Does the black land represent black people? My argument is that, if we truly base the color, as our determining factor of created beings; then I would say Adam and Eve were neither white nor black but they were chocolate in color (dust). Let us not be bias when we talk about education, it is for all.
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The future in biblical perspective (The call of Moses).
Christian Education was birthed from the day God called Moses,(in burning bush) while he was shepherding the flock of his father’s in law Jethro, the high priest of Midianites: (in fact Midian was a son of Abraham with Keturah the progenitor of all Midianites) sent him to Egypt, to deliver Israelites from the land of bondage- Egypt. Although Moses was educated in Egypt, he went back with impartation of God’s divine wisdom at the burning bush. “Moses, Moses … put off thy shoes, from of thy feet for the place whereon thou standest is a holy ground” (Ex. 3:1-10).
Moses acted as a politician-liberator, in the presence of Pharoah. “let my people go” is repeated several times in (Ex. 7:16; 8:1,20; 9:1,13).
The Exit
After the departure from Egypt and farthing for some time in the wilderness, God called Moses to the top of mount Sinai.
Although, Adam and Eve were the first people to converse with God, and were instructed never to eat the fruits of the tree of knowledge and evil; they never had possessed the written words. This came much later to Moses, as the appointed Prophet of God; of whom God revealed himself as the creator of all things, heavenly, earthly and underworld. “I am that I am”. Moses was not only the one God revealed
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to, He also revealed himself to others through dreams and visions (prophets and prophetesses” (Job 33:14,15; Heb.1:1,2).
God as the first Author and publisher of the Pentateuch and Ten Commandments, handed them to Moses, to be read and obeyed, as a mark of separation from Egyptians’ gods. All instructions pertaining to holiness, righteousness, civility, pattern, ecology and many other moral laws were embodied. Torah and other Old Testament books played a great role in the lives of the Jews people.
Systematic teaching was introduced, it paved the way for Christian Education
The five books of the law were to be taught to all children; eternalized and memorized in oral and writing from one generation to the other. Moses was God’s spokesman and peoples’ mediator. The Hebrew bible contains 24 books inclusive of law, historical, poetry, prophets (Deut. 6:4-7:1-11).
“ This words, which I command thee this day ,shall be in thine heart: And thou shall teach them diligently unto thou children and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up” ( Deut. 6:6,7).
God is the Master teacher, he taught Moses and Moses in turn, was the instructor to all Hebrews, oral and writing was the methodology maintained. God’s sole purpose to reveal himself to humanity is to manifest his mercy, love, salvation and expect obedience. This was a monotheism theology not polytheism theology of Egyptians.
I suppose it is of paramount importance to have knowledge but the question is, are we dealing with assumptions, presuppositions or historical facts of a person who once existed? To answer this question, there are out there, many written stories depicting Moses invariable characters. Mythology in many Countries were told orally, written, of a man who was courageous and who demonstrated his leadership in coming out of a land of slavery.
Let us see his origin by observing a short genealogy in chapter two (2). Modern science (Archeology) has played a vital role in exposing the buried past sites, declaring historical facts.
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Chapter 2
The short genealogy of Moses.
Amram married Jochebed his aunt or sister of his father Kohath, and he was the father of Aaron, Moses and Miriam (I Chr. 1-3; Ex. 1: 1-10; 6:16, 20).
Amram, Jochebed, and their daughter Miriam, (with God’s help), had saved Moses’ life; by putting him in a closed basket and put it in the river. Miriam suggested to Pharaoh’s daughter, to find a Hebrew woman who can help breast- feed the baby. When Moses was approximately two years old, he was weaned; and now his mother brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter. He would have all the advantages of a prince, including the best education. “Moses” means drawing out. (I Chr.6:1-3 Ex. 16, 20).
Jacob (Israel) with Leah bore Levi (Gen. 29:34) Reuben was the first born, Simeon second born, Levi third born and Judah fourth born, Issachar fifth born, Zebulun sixth born and a daughter, Dinah.
Bilhah Rachel’s maid gave birth to two sons – Dan and Naphtali.
Zilphal Leah’s maid gave birth, two sons- Gad and Asher.
Rachel bore Joseph, and at her labor-death for the second child, she bore a son and called him Ben-oni, but Jacob called him Benjamin. Rachel died and was buried in Bethlehem. (Gen 35 17, 18). All sons of Jacob (Israel) were 12 inclusive.
Levi’s three sons, Gershon, Kohath and Merari.
Kohath had four sons Amram, Izehar, Hebron and Uzziel.
Amram had two sons, Aron, Moses and a daughter Miriam
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I earlier had stated that, God called Moses to be a deliverer of Israelites from Egypt: but this time round, he is going there as a converted Moses, not the murderer, not elite and fearful man, but as a prophet-politician and a priest with boldness, and supernatural power.
Moses went to Egypt with what God orally gave him, to face Pharoah and his fellow men under oppression.
Old testament – Hebrew Bible
There is no proper effective, productive education, in both secular and religious endeavor, without the availability of the material source. Old Testament, categorically is called Hebrew Bible, there are first five books (the Torah) which are credited to Moses.
God introduced Himself to Moses as “I am that I am” This is monotheistic theology. But Moses had a knowledge of Polytheism in Egypt.
An article from Britannica has this to say:
“Monotheism, belief in the existence of one god, or in the oneness of God. As such, it is distinguished from polytheism, the belief in the existence of many gods, from atheism, the belief that there is no god, and from agnosticism, the belief that the existence or nonexistence of a god or of gods is unknown or unknowable. Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and elements of the belief are discernible in numerous other religions.”
Surely, I grew up in Kenya, East Africa and in my Gikuyu tribe (Kikuyu), we worshiped and sacrificed to a monotheistic God, so within our beliefs, He is the creator, provider and protector of all things. Under a sacred sycamore tree, (Mugumo) is where Elders would gather together and slaughter unblemished
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lamb and pray for the rain, and any other ailments; there and then, the pouring of rain, could send them off. And there are evil spirits that bring omens, sicknesses or calamity. In our culture, we had no written books but orally passed down information from generation to generation; until the era of missionaries who brought education in written form and medical awareness, which transformed some of our cultural traditions and customs with an intention of evangelization. Not all White men came as missionaries, some came as businessmen and farmers, who took natives’ land and planted coffee trees and tea, (plantations) of which later on brought bitterness among natives against settlers. The seed of anger grew to the extent that majority of natives questioned how foreigners could they possess mass of land without price? Hear what Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa said on his visit to US in 1984: ‘When the Missionaries first came to Africa, they had the Bible and we had the land. They said “Let us pray.” We closed our eyes. When we opened them again we had the Bible and they had the land.’ But gradually religious education dominated the area or region that welcomed and hosted missionaries. And because of royalty of those natives who accepted the doctrines of White Missionaries a gap was created between Christians and animists.
Jesus’ crucial teachings opposed to Judaism.
We need to have a critical observation on the question of Jesus’ both divine and human nature: the reason: it is because some people do not believe in two distinct natures in one person; holding on peccability and impeccability school of thought. What does scripture say? “Thou madest him a little lower than angels; thou crownedst him with glory and honour, and didst set him over the works of thy hands: Forasmuch then as the children are partakers of flesh and blood, he also himself likewise took part of the same; that through death he might destroy him that had the power of death, that is, the devil: For verily he took not on him the nature of angels: but he took on him the seed of Abraham” (Heb. 2:7,14,16).
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“He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of every creature. For by Him were all things created that are in heaven and that are on earth, visible and invisible, whether they be thrones or dominions or principalities or powers: all things were created by Him and for Him. And He is before all things, and by Him all things consist. And He is the head of the body, the church. He is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, that in all things He might have the preeminence” (Col. 1:15-18 KJ21).
Thus, Jesus’ conception was not by man but by Holy Spirit. There is no way we can say Joseph was the biological father of Jesus but a Guardian. Jesus interacted with humans as a man, no objection on that perception, and he was Emanuel (God with us). God’s covenant to David of a Messianic King; Jesus in his first advent never fulfilled the prophecy of being a King, but as a savior he died on the cross for humanity. His second advent, he then will fulfill the prediction and reign as promised “the seed or branch of David”.
The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christendom, and the Church with its various denominations, from the 1st century to present…Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus in the 1st century in Roman province of Judea. According to the Gospels, Jesus was a Jewish teacher and healer who proclaimed the imminent Kingdom of God, and was crucified at c.30–33 AD.
Jesus affirmed the monotheistic theology and repudiated the polytheistic doctrine.
Jesus declared: “The first of all commandments is, Hear O Israel; The Lord our God is one Lord: And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thine strength: this is the first commandment. And the second is like, namely this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. There is none other commandment greater than these (Mk.12:29,30,3 KJV).
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FOLLOWING JESUS’ METHOD OF TEACHING
We have four ways, Jesus Christ used in his ministry which are recorded in (Mark 8:16-21).
Teaching from negative to positive (Mt.5: 1-).
Teaching by asking questions (Mk. 8: 17-21). Six questions without answers and two questions with answers. The purposes or ultimate goal is to drive the truth deep into the heart and mind.
Teaching with similitude (Mt. 5:1).
Teaching from known to unknown- e. g “As it was in the days of Noah—So it shall be”.
“What can profit a man if he can gain the whole world, and loose his own soul? (Mk. 8:36).
Apostolic period (Preaching and Teaching).
The ministries of the Apostles are clearly and soundly recorded in the book of Acts.
The main and outstanding men are:
Peter who in the Day of Pentecost preached and three thousand people were converted in one occasion, moment, and time (Acts 2).
Peter and John were prisoned and warned never to preach in the name of Jesus; the thing they declared “we cannot stop for we have seen, heard and handled it” (Jn. 4:). Stephen the deacon, who preached fearlessly, was stoned to death. And as he was dying prayed for his executioner that they should be forgiven (Acts 7:59,60).
Phillip the soul winner, approached an Ethiopian on the road, approached, and one on one conversation; he led the man to believe and accepted Jesus Christ as his personal savior (This is personal evangelism) (Acts. 8: 27,35,37-40).
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Paul the hardcore, persecutor of Christians, turned to be the champion of what he previously determined to destroy. He encountered Christ on his way to Damascus (Acts 9:1-15).
These men: Luke, Mark, Silas, Barnabas, Timothy and Titus became Paul’s companions in his preaching ministry, reaching cities with the saving Gospel. But Phillip became an outstanding deacon, among Church elected officials, in the midst of the Church going through the persecution; he went to Antioch and preached, many people were converted to Christianity.
Chapter 3
Medieval Era:
The Church Fathers’ role in formulating and connotation of Scriptures.
“Therefore, following the holy fathers, we all with one accord should teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, at once complete in Godhead”.
The Church history, is well presented and preserved by those who did trailblazing in Christian education.
Trailblazers in African perspective, are those who get wet and face hardships in clearing the path for others to follow, and sometimes, the animals do that where there is long grass covering the path.
The Role of Church Fathers was so great that their influence to this day is upheld in every Christian belief, faith and practice.
Wikipedia › wiki › Christianity in Africa – Wikipedia
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The article below shows eight important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity. The roaster: Tertullian, Perpetua, Felicity, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius and Augustine of Hippo, presents such information.
For example. “The Church of Saint George, Lalibela, Ethiopia Christianity in Africa began in Egypt in the middle of the 1st century. By the end of the 2nd century it had reached the region around Carthage. Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian, Perpetua, Felicity, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius and Augustine of Hippo. In the 4th century the Aksumite empire was Christianized, and the Nubian kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia followed two centuries later. Since the spread of Islam into North Africa, the size of Christian congregations as well as their number was reduced, so that of the original churches only the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria and Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (which separated from each other during the Chalcedonian Schism) in Egypt and the Orthodox Tewahedo Church (that split into Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) in the Horn of Africa remained. The Ethiopian church held its own distinct religious customs and a unique canon of the Bible. The Ethiopian church community in the Horn of Africa wasn’t the product of European missionary work, rather, it had spread through missionaries much earlier (while the P’ent’ay churches are works of a Protestant reformation within Ethiopian Christianity).[1] The position of the head of the Catholic Church of Africa (Archdiocese of Carthage), the only one permitted to preach in the continent, in 1246 belonged to the bishop of Morocco.[2] The bishopric of Marrakesh continued to exist until the late 16th century.[3] “Christianity is embraced by the majority of the population in most Southern African, Southeast African, and Central African states and others in some parts of Horn of Africa and West Africa. The Coptic
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Christians make up a significant minority in Egypt. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 40% of the continent’s population, with Muslims forming 45%. In a relatively short time, Africa has gone from having a majority of followers of indigenous, traditional religions, to being predominantly a continent of Christians and Muslims. Since 2013, traditional African religions are declared as the majority religion only in Togo. Importantly, today within most self-declared Christian communities in Africa, there is significant and sustained syncretism with African Traditional Religious beliefs and practices.[4]. New data from the Gordon Theological Seminary shows that, for the first time ever, more number of Christians live in Africa than on any other single continent.[5]” “The results show Africa on top with 631 million Christian residents, Latin America in 2nd place with 601 million Christians, and Europe in 3rd place with 571 million Christians.”[6]
By this succession, the ecclesiastical tradition from the apostles, and the preaching of the truth, have come down to us. And this is most abundant proof that there is one and the same live-giving faith, which has been preserved in the church from the apostles until now, and handed down in truth.” –Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 180 AD
Who Are the Church Fathers?
Tertullian
The term church fathers refer to Christian writers and theologians of the first eight centuries of the Christian church, especially the period of development up to 451 AD. {1} The church fathers are sometimes further divided into Apostolic Fathers, who wrote in the first century, and the Ante-Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, who wrote before and after the Council of Nicean (325 AD), respectively. The period during which the church fathers wrote is known as the Patristic Period and the academic study of these writers is called Patristics. Both terms derive from the Latin word pater, meaning “father.”
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The church fathers are of great importance to Christianity because they formulated nearly all of the Christian doctrine that is accepted by Christians today. They interpreted the Bible in light of challenges from Greek thought and various heretical movements, determined Christianity’s relationship to Judaism, elaborated on theological concepts such as the Trinity and salvation, and established the structure and organization of the church.
The Patristic Period
The earliest church fathers wrote in the latter part of the first century (80-100 AD), around the time the biblical canon was closed. These writers were especially concerned with practical matters like faith, righteous living and church organization. The writings of this period consist primarily of letters between churches and exhortations to keep the faith in the midst of persecution. These writers are known as the “Apostolic Fathers” for their close connection with the apostles, and include Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Hermas, Polycarp and Papias, as well as the unknown authors of the Epistle of Barnabas, the Epistle of Diognetus, 2 Clement, and the Didache.
Around the turn of the first century, Christian writers began to turn their attention outward in defense of Christianity against false claims made by Roman persecutors and demonstrating Christianity’s reasonableness to minds trained on Greek philosophy. These writings were usually addressed to Roman emperors or other pagan critics, and their authors are known as the “Apologists.” Among the most important apologists are Justin Martyr and Tertullian. Augustine’s lengthy City of God is also considered an apologetic work.
The fathers of the second and third centuries also directed their efforts towards combatting what they saw as heresy, or false interpretations of the Christian faith. After the conversion of Emperor Constantine and the end of persecution in 313 AD, Christian writers turned from apologetics to focus almost exclusively on this task. No longer threatened from without, the church still faced threats from within. By the turn of the first century AD, most Christian converts were Gentiles, not Jews. These
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converts brought with them many ways of understanding Christianity, and often their perspectives on Christianity were quite different from that of most church leaders. Thus the church fathers from the fourth century onward were focused especially on the defense of what they saw as the true Christian faith (orthodoxy) against corruptions or misunderstandings (heresy).
Further complicating the situation, the conversion of the emperor had made theology a political matter. After Constantine’s conversion, many new converts flooded into the church, for now Christianity was not only legal, it was the religion of the emperor and therefore politically advantageous. Furthermore, Constantine and his successors viewed Christianity as a means for unifying the empire, and they had no patience for what they regarded as petty doctrinal differences. Thus Christian teachers who taught unorthodox doctrines were not only excommunicated from the church but exiled from the empire. Not surprisingly, the success of a particular theological position was sometimes directly related to who had the ear of the emperor at the moment. Athanasius, honored by all Christians today as a great defender of orthodoxy, was exiled and reinstated no less than eight times as the political winds shifted.
Clement of Rome
Traditionally held to be the third bishop of Rome (i.e., pope)
Author of 1 Clement, a letter to the Corinthian church
Many other writings ascribed to him that are probably not authentic (including 2 Clement, the Clementine Homilies and Recognitions)
For more information, see Clement of Rome.
Hermas
Lived in Rome
Nothing is known of him except that he is the author of The Shepherd, a record of visions regarded by much of the Eastern Church as scripture and is included immediately after the New Testament in the early manuscript Codex Sinaiticus
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Ignatius of Antioch (d. 107)
Bishop of Antioch
Traveled under guard from Asia Minor to Rome to be martyred
Met with at least five churches along the way (Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia, Smyrna)
Author of letters to each of these churches plus one to Rome and one to Polycarp, which were collected and venerated shortly after his death
Viewed the office of bishop as an important safeguard of the unity of the Church
Papias (c.60-130)
Bishop of Hierapolis (Asia Minor)
Wrote Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord (known only from quotations in Irenaeus and Eusebius), which contains oral traditions and legends
His Expositions is especially important for its information on the writing of the gospels
Polycarp (c.69-c.155)
Bishop of Smyrna (in Turkey)
Only his Epistle to the Philippians survives
According to The Martyrdom of Polycarp, a contemporary account, he was arrested during a pagan festival and burnt to death when he refused to recant his faith
Feast day is February 23
Justin Martyr (c. 100-c.165)
Born in Samaria
Converted from paganism after a long search for truth
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Considered the greatest of the Apologists
Wrote First Apology, Second Apology, and Dialogue with Trypho the Jew
Argued that God had provided hints of Christ in Greek philosophy through the logos spermatikos (“seed-bearing word”)
Beheaded for refusing to sacrifice to pagan gods
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130-c.200)
Born in Smyra (in Turkey), moved to Rome, then settled in Lyons. Disciple of Polycarp
Bishop of Lyons (France) from c. 178 to c. 200
Wrote against Gnosticism, especially that of Valentinus
Most significant work is Against Heresies (full title Detection and Overthrow of the Falsely Named “Knowledge”)
Major themes include the Christian doctrine of salvation and the importance of holding to apostolic tradition in the face of other interpretations
Taught the notion of “recapitulation,” in which Christ is the consummation of creation and God’s purpose for the world
For more information, see Irenaeus of Lyons.
Hippolytus of Rome (c.170-c.236)
Roman priest
Wrote against Sabellianism
Criticized Pope Callistus for lax policy of readmitting penitents to communion and may have been elected by a group of dissidents as a rival pope
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Principal work is Refutation of all Heresies (discovered in the 19th cent.), which argues that all heresies derive from pagan philosophy
Historically important is his treatise The Apostolic Tradition (written c.215), which describes in detail the sacraments of ordination, baptism and the Eucharist
Feast day: August 13 (West) or January 30 (East)
Origen of Alexandria (c.185-c.254)
Widely regarded as the most important theologian and biblical scholar of the early Greek church.
Born of Christian parents in Alexandria, Egypt
Father was martyred and Origen was prevented from also seeking martyrdom by his mother’s intervention
Lived an ascetic life and legend has it that he castrated himself so he could teach women without scandal
Worked as a teacher in the Alexandrian catechetical school, an unordained preacher, and a prolific theological writer
Major work is the Hexapla, a synopsis of six versions of the Old Testament
Other works include the Stromateis (Miscellanies), On the Resurrection, On First Principles, On Prayer, and numerous commentaries and sermons
Origen’s theology focused on the goodness of God and the freedom of mankind
Some of his teachings have been controversial, such as his suggestion of the preexistence of souls, the inferiority of the Son, and eventual salvation of all beings including Satan
He is regarded as a saint by some and a heretic by others, and was never canonized by the church. The eminent church historian Henry Chadwick puts it this way: “If orthodoxy were a matter of intention, no theologian could be more orthodox than Origen, none more devoted to the cause of Christian faith.”
For more information, see Origen of Alexandria.
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Tertullian (c.160-c.225)
Born in Carthage, North Africa
First important Latin church father
Converted to Christianity sometime before 197 AD
Wrote numerous theological, moral, and polemical works, including Apology, The Soldier’s Crown, On Penitence, On the Incarnation of Christ, Against Heretics, Against Marcion, and Against Praxeus
Was rigorous in his insistence on separation from pagan society and adherence to the faith under any circumstances
Though he made use of philosophy and rational argument, he is known for arguing that pagan philosophy has no place in the church: “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” and “It is certain because it is impossible.”
Another famous quote is: “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.”
Athanasius (c. 296-c.373) Bishop of Alexandria
Fought against any compromise with Arianism after the Council of Nicea (325 AD)
Was repeatedly deposed and exiled as the Arian party gained power, then restored to his position as the other side ascended
Finally restored in 366
Wrote On the Incarnation of Christ sometime before 318
Also wrote Life of Antony, making monasticism known to the West
For more information, see Athanasius.
Jerome (c.342-420)
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Born in Italy, lived for four years in Palestine as a hermit, was a secretary to Pope Damasus in Rome, then settled in Bethlehem in 386 to study and write
Translated the Bible from Greek to Latin (Vulgate)
Advocated for the exclusion of the Apocrypha from the canonical Old Testament
Tradition has Jerome helping a lion by removing a thorn from its paw, so he is often depicted with a lion in Christian art
Feast day: September 30
Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
The most important Latin church father
Has had a lasting impact on Catholicism, especially in the area of ecclesiology, and his theology of original sin and unmerited grace has been embraced by Protestantism
Born in North Africa of a pagan father and devoutly Christian mother
Studied rhetoric in Milan, where he indulged in pride and lust and began his search for truth
Briefly joined Manicheanism, but found it intellectually unsatisfactory
According to his spiritual autobiography (Confessions), after listening to the sermons of Ambrose and observing the self-discipline of Christian monks, he converted to Catholic Christianity in a garden while reading Romans
Unwillingly became Bishop of Hippo not long after his baptism
Wrote an apologetic work (City of God), a handbook for Christian living (Enchiridion of Faith, Hope and Love), a theological work On the Trinity and a great deal of polemic works against the Manicheans, Pelagians, and Donatists.
For more information, see Augustine of Hippo.
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Septuagint: (Seventy scholars) were involved in the Greek translation of the original Hebrew Bible; why and what effect it has in Christian education? Since Greek language was the medium in communication under Hellenistic period. This work of translation was done independently in seventy days, and all translations agreed in every detail. That was a supernaturally guided outcome. After the translation was made; the Greek version was then used to have English Bible translated into other languages, where the British Empire had its foot on.
Proponents of Christian education in Precedent of the Reformation
With a note that: “Cambridge and many other universities were founded at this time.
Cathedral schools and monasteries remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the Third Lateran Council of 1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as the Scholastic Movement was spread through the monasteries. These however ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when universities, which grew out of the monasticism began to be established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music and architecture.[44]
In 1120, Dunfermline Abbey in Scotland by order of Malcolm Canmore and his Queen, Margaret, built and established the first high school in the UK, Dunfermline High School. This highlighted the monastery influence and developments made for education, from the ancient capital of Scotland.
Sculpture, paintings and stained glass windows were vital educational media through which Biblical themes and the lives of the saints were taught to illiterate viewers.”
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Philosophical ideas taking preference above the scriptural outset.
The secular education was governed by philosophical ideas which try to question and answer anthropological existence and demise. Do not forget that Egypt was the source of ideas that influenced
Greek philosophers.
The roaster of Greek philosophers
Pythagoras – Pythagoras is most known for the Pythagorean Theorem which is used to find the length of sides of right triangles. He also believed that the world was based on mathematics. Epicurus – Said that the gods had no interest in humans. That what we should do is enjoy our lives and be happy. Zeno – Founded a type of philosophy called Stoicism. He said that happiness was from accepting whatever happened, good or bad. His philosophy was a way of life that emphasized a person’s actions more than their words. Greek philosophers were “seekers and lovers of wisdom”. They studied and analyzed the world around them using logic and reason. Although we often think of philosophy as religion or “the meaning of life”, the Greek philosophers were also scientists. Many studied mathematics and physics as well. Often the philosophers were teachers of wealthy children. Some of the more famous ones opened their own schools or academies. Major Greek Philosophers Socrates
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Socrates was the first major Greek philosopher. He came up with the Socratic Method. This was a way of studying issues and problems through a question and answer technique. Socrates introduced political philosophy and got the Greeks to start thinking hard about morals, good and evil, and how their society should work. Socrates didn’t write a lot down, but we know what he thought from the recordings of his student, Plato. Plato Plato wrote much of his philosophy in conversations called dialogues. The dialogues feature Socrates as one of the speakers. Plato’s most famous work is called the Republic. In this work Socrates discusses the meaning of justice and how cities and governments should be ruled. He describes his ideal society in the conversations. This work is still studied today and has had an impact on both philosophy and political theory throughout history. Plato from The School of Athens by Raffaello Sanzio. “Plato believed that no one should be rich or live in luxury. He also believed that each person should do the job that they are best suited for. He thought a philosopher-king should rule society. He founded his own school called the Academy where he taught students, such as Aristotle. Aristotle Aristotle was a student of Plato, but didn’t necessarily agree with all that Plato said. Aristotle liked to focus on more practical areas of philosophy including science. He founded his own school called the
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Lyceum. He thought that reason was the highest good and that it was important to have self-control. Aristotle was a tutor for Alexander the Great.”
Different schools of thought aggrandized.
Reasoning and debating governed the process of divining what is the truth and the falsehood in regard of spiritual matters verses secularism. All men and women engaged to find what is that acceptable to individuals lives and social governing rules in politics, morals, education and commerce. There were those who seriously engaged themselves in Church Christian Education.
Theological Schools in the Early Church
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“Three important geographical areas emerged in the patristic period, each with a distinctive theological approach. These are sometimes called schools, as in schools of thought, not universities.
Alexandria. Alexandria was a busy port town in northern Egypt founded by Alexander the Great. As the birthplace of both Neoplatonism and Philo, Alexandria had already established itself as a center for Greek philosophy by the first century. Not surprisingly, then, the theology of Greek-speaking Alexandria is characterized by its close connection with Platonic philosophy. Its Christology tended to emphasize the divinity of Christ and its interpretation of Scripture was often allegorical. Among the most prominent Alexandrian fathers are Clement, Origen and Didymus the Blind. Antioch. Another Greek-speaking city, Antioch was an important city in the region of Cappadocia (modern-day Turkey). Christianity was established early here – the city even plays a prominent role in the New Testament book of Acts. Antiochene theologians tended to emphasize the moral example and humanity of Christ and to interpret Scripture in light of its historical context. The philosophy of Antioch was more influenced by Aristotle than Plato. Important Antiochene fathers include Diodore of Tarsus and John Chrysostom. Also from this region are the eminent “Cappadocian Fathers”: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus. Western North Africa. Located primarily in modern-day Algeria, this region included the great city of Carthage, which for a time rivaled Rome in power. North African theologians wrote in Latin, and tended to be more practical than their philosophically-minded Greek counterparts. Notable theologians of this region include Cyprian, Tertullian, and Augustine.
With this “big picture” in mind, below are brief guides to the lives and writings of some of the most important church fathers, presented in chronological order. See also the Chart of Church Fathers for an illustrated, at-a-glance guide to the fathers.”
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References
John Bowker, ed., Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Religions.
Cross and Livingstone, eds., Oxford Dictionary of the Early Church.
Alister McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 2nd ed., pp. 5-23.
Formal education in the Middle Ages (500–1500 AD)[edit]
Europe[edit]
See also: Medieval university, List of medieval universities, and List of oldest universities in continuous operation
Figure 3
The Abbey of Cluny was one of the most influential
During the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church were the centers of education and literacy, preserving the Church’s selection from Latin learning and maintaining the art of writing. Prior to their formal establishment, many medieval universities were run for hundreds of years as Christian monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), in which monks taught classes, and later as
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cathedral schools; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the early 6th century.[40]
The first medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology.[1] These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date on which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide.
Students in the twelfth-century were very proud of the master whom they studied under. They were not very concerned with telling others the place or region where they received their education. Even now when scholars cite schools with distinctive doctrines, they use group names to describe the school rather than its geographical location. Those who studied under Robert of Melun were called the Meludinenses. These people did not study in Melun, but in Paris, and were given the group name of their master. Citizens in the twelfth-century became very interested in learning the rare and difficult skills masters could provide.[41]
Ireland became known as the island of saints and scholars. Monasteries were built all over Ireland, and these became centres of great learning (see Celtic Church).
Northumbria was famed as a centre of religious learning and arts. Initially the kingdom was evangelized by monks from the Celtic Church, which led to a flowering of monastic life, and Northumbria played an important role in the formation of Insular art, a unique style combining Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Byzantine and other elements. After the Synod of Whitby in 664 AD, Roman church practices officially replaced the Celtic ones but the influence of the Anglo-Celtic style continued, the most famous examples of this being the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Venerable Bede (673–735) wrote his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) in a Northumbrian monastery, and much of it focuses on the kingdom.[42]
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During the reign of Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 to 814 AD, whose empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, there was a flowering of literature, art, and architecture known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries through his vast conquests, Charlemagne greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book-copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars.
Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the liberal arts at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well-educated, and even studying himself under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialect and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. The English monk Alcuin was invited to Charlemagne’s court at Aachen, and brought with him the precise classical Latin education that was available in the monasteries of Northumbria.[43] The return of this Latin proficiency to the kingdom of the Franks is regarded as an important step in the development of mediaeval Latin. Charlemagne’s chancery made use of a type of script currently known as Carolingian minuscule, providing a common writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. After the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the rise of the Saxon Dynasty in Germany was accompanied by the Ottonian Renaissance.
accompanied by the Ottonian Renaissance.
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Figure 4
Cambridge and many other universities were founded at this time.
Cathedral schools and monasteries remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the Third Lateran Council of 1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as the Scholastic Movement was spread through the monasteries. These however ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when universities, which grew out of the monasticism began to be established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music and architecture.[44]
In 1120, Dunfermline Abbey in Scotland by order of Malcolm Canmore and his Queen, Margaret, built and established the first high school in the UK, Dunfermline High School. This highlighted the monastery influence and developments made for education, from the ancient capital of Scotland.
Sculpture, paintings and stained glass windows were vital educational media through which Biblical themes and the lives of the saints were taught to illiterate viewers
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Bibliography
Anderson, Robert David. European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914 (Oxford University Press, 2004)
Begley, Ronald B. and Joseph W. Koterski. Medieval Education (2005) online
Bowen, James. A History of Western Education: Vol 3: The Modern West, Europe and the New World (2003).
Boyd, William, and Edmund J. King. The History of Western Education (1994)
Butts, R. Freeman. A Cultural History of Western Education: Its Social and Intellectual Foundations (2nd ed. 1955) online
Cook, T. G. The History of Education in Europe (1974)
Cubberley, Ellwood. The history of education (1920) online Strong on European developments
Graff, Harvey J. The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society (1987) from Middle Ages to present
Hoyer, Timo. “Sozialgeschichte der Erziehung. Von der Antike bis in die Moderne” [Social History of Education. From Ancient to Modern Age] (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft Darmstadt, 2015)
Lawson, John, and Harold Silver. A social history of education in England (Routledge, 2013)
McCulloch, Gary. The Struggle for the History of Education (2011), Focus on Britain excerpt; Chapter 1 covers historiography.
McCulloch, Gary. Historical Research in Educational Settings (2000); Textbook on how to write British educational history. excerpt; Good bibliography
Ringer, Fritz. Education and Society in Modern Europe (1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to US and Britain
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Soysal, Yasemin Nuhoglu; Strang, David (1989). “Construction of the First Mass Education Systems in Nineteenth-Century Europe”. Sociology of Education. 62 (4): 277–88. doi:10.2307/2112831. JSTOR 2112831.
Sturt, Mary. The education of the people: A history of primary education in England and Wales in the nineteenth century (Routledge, 2013)
Toloudis, Nicholas. Teaching Marianne and Uncle Sam: Public Education, State Centralization, and Teacher Unionism in France and the United States (Temple University Press, 2012) 213 pp
Sorin-Avram, Virtop (2015). “Romanian Contemporary Approaches to the Continuous Training of History and Geography Teachers”. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 197: 1774–81. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.235.
Wardle, David. English popular education 1780-1970 (Cambridge UP, 1970)
Whitehead, Barbara J., ed. Women’s education in early modern Europe: a history, 1500-1800 (1999) online specialized topics
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Chapter 4
Reformation Era:
Why the Reformation?
Freedom is sought by an individual or group of people, who are politically marginalized and oppressed, it is also true to those who are financially constrained and oppressed. Therefore, they seek financial, political, and spiritual freedom from the power of the oppressor.
Martin Luther the father of reformation
Apostacy crept in the Roman Catholic Church, and the truth seeker began to see and question the credibility of so, called Church tradition. A monk Martin Luther having read Rom.1:17 “The righteous shall live by faith” these words dawned to him that man’s salvation does not depend on human efforts of trying to work hard to invite God’s righteousness. To have faith in Christ’s death and resurrection is the only primary action to be justified. Out of his conviction he wrote 95 Theses challenging the church’s authority over the individual’s sole obligation to worship and serve God freely without external blockage.
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The following article declares what he had in mind as a priest, and professor of moral theology:
“Luther sent the Theses enclosed with a letter to Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, on 31 October 1517, a date now considered the start of the Reformation and commemorated annually as Reformation Day. Luther may have also posted the Theses on the door of All Saints’ Church and other churches in Wittenberg, in accordance with University custom, on 31 October or in mid-November. The Theses were quickly reprinted, translated, and distributed throughout Germany and Europe. They initiated a pamphlet war with the indulgence preacher Johann Tetzel, which spread Luther’s fame even further. Luther’s ecclesiastical superiors had him tried for heresy, which culminated in his excommunication in 1521. Though the Theses were the start of the Reformation, Luther did not consider indulgences to be as important as other theological matters which would divide the church, such as justification by faith alone and the bondage of the will. His breakthrough on these issues would come later, and he did not see the writing of the Theses as the point at which his beliefs diverged from those of the Roman Catholic Church”.
Other Reformers
“John Calvin
1509 AD – 1564 AD
A lawyer turned reformist, John Calvin was another very gifted individual. He refind Augustine’s theologies on sovereignty and predestination, creating what is today called Calvinism. In 1536, Calvin
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wrote The Institutes of the Christian Religion, a systematic theology book that vigorously attacked the theology of the Roman Catholic Church, and because of the power of the RCC, had to run away to Geneva to escape them. While there, he writes a commentary on the entire Bible.
A big difference between Calvin and Luther was Luther’s humanistic teaching philosophy, while Calvin stressed the teacher’s role in learning, and encouraged the use of strong corporal punishment.
Ignatius Loyola
1491 AD – 1556 AD
Loyola was injured in war, he turned to reading religious texts and became a Christian after reportedly having visions from God. In defense of the Pope, Loyola creates the Jesuits. A military-like order of Catholicism, these evangelists were trained in nurturing although strenuous schools. Their impact was large even from the start; by 1548 they had established over 160 colleges, and after only 200 years, there existed some 800 Jesuit colleges.
Philip Melanchthon
1497 AD – 1560 AD
A close friend of Luther, Melanchthon also was a humanist educator. He too believed in the classics (Ancient Greek and Roman literature), and stressed their importance, as well as the importance of humanist methodology in schools. He helped introduce Christian humanism to Christian universities.
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Francis Xavier
1506 AD – 1552 AD
A Jesuit, Francis Xavier used this ideology of teaching through a caring but zealous method helped in his desire to convert the Moors, as well as his travels to India and Japan.
Women in the Protestant Reformation
As I do the research. I saw women’s involvement in Church History, their involvement in both the Patristic and in the Protestant Reformation eras were not highlighted.
Women not allowed to preach or publish. But they were in the fight.
“Elisabeth Cruciger was a friend of Martin Luther and the first female Reformation-era hymn writer. Elizabeth Melville was the first woman to print a book in Scotland. Women’s preaching or publishing material stood in direct opposition to the words ascribed to St. Paul (1 Timothy 2: 11-15) which ordered women not to teach or preach, so that all women who published felt it necessary to justify their actions.[3] Even the sole alternative role for women which had existed outside of marriage, to join a convent, was no longer available in Reformed Protestant areas, although some convents voluntarily participated in the Reformation. For example, following Catherine of Mecklenburg’s choice to defy her Catholic husband and smuggle Lutheran books to Ursula of Munsterberg and other nuns, Ursula (in 1528) published 69 articles justifying their reasons to leave their convent. Although her writings reached Martin Luther, they were listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum from 1596 to 1900. In 1590, Christine of Hesse published the psalm-book Geistliche Psalmen und Lieder. The only exception was the Anabaptist religion, where women could preach in church. The only evident
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of works or writings that are written by women are from their letters or through the testimonials of the woman who were being questioned about their faith. However, in 1569 Magdalena Heymair became the first woman ever to have her writings listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. She published a series of pedagogical writings for elementary-age teaching and also wrote poetry. It is also important to note that these testimonials, based on the women of the Reformation, were written by men.[4] This lack of written work by women may have something to do with the fact that society was a male dominated one and women were meant to complete their household duties and nothing else. Lutheran poet Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg was exiled from her home in Austria during the Counter-Reformation. Women not allowed to preach or publish Edit Elisabeth Cruciger was a friend of Martin Luther and the first female Reformation-era hymn writer. Elizabeth Melville was the first woman to print a book in Scotland. Women’s preaching or publishing material stood in direct opposition to the words ascribed to St. Paul (1 Timothy 2: 11-15) which ordered women not to teach or preach, so that all women who published felt it necessary to justify their actions.[3] Even the sole alternative role for women which had existed outside of marriage, to join a convent, was no longer available in Reformed Protestant areas, although some convents voluntarily participated in the Reformation. For example, following Catherine of Mecklenburg’s choice to defy her Catholic husband and smuggle Lutheran books to Ursula of Munsterberg and other nuns, Ursula (in 1528) published 69 articles justifying their reasons to leave their convent. Although her writings reached Martin Luther, they were listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum from 1596 to 1900.”
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Faith surpasses a tradition or ritualism.
The Neglected History of Women in the Early Church.
There is a number of women who were involved in the expansion of Christianity. A number of prominent leaders, scholars, and benefactors of the early church were women and—despite neglect by many modern historians—the diligent researcher can still uncover a rich history.
Updates from Christian History: ( CT) “Women were the last disciples at the cross and the first at the empty tomb. they remained integral to the work of the church in its early centuries. Catherine Kroeger scours historical data to compile an impressive collection of stories about noteworthy women in the early church. One of the best-kept secrets in Christianity is the enormous role that women played in the early church. Though they leave much unsaid, still, both Christian and secular writers of the time attest many times to the significant involvement of women in the early growth of Christianity. Such women as CATHERINE KROEGER and Celsus, a 2nd-century detractor of the faith, once taunted that the church attracted only “the silly and the mean and the stupid, with women and children.” His contemporary, Bishop Cyprian of Carthage, acknowledged in his Testimonia that “Christian maidens were very numerous” and that it was difficult to find Christian husbands for all of them. These comments give us a picture of a church disproportionately populated by women.
Why? One reason might have been the practice of exposing unwanted female infants—abandoning them to certain death. Christians, of course, repudiated this practice, and thus had more living females. Also, in the upper echelons of society, women often converted to Christianity while their male relatives remained pagans, lest they lose their senatorial status. This too contributed to the inordinate number of
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women in the church, particularly upper-class women. Callistus, bishop of Rome c. 220, attempted to resolve the marriage problem by giving women of the senatorial class an ecclesiastical sanction to marry slaves or freedmen—even though Roman law prohibited this.”
References Sophia Brahe”. National Schools’ Observatory. Retrieved 7 September 2018. ^ Koldau, Linda Maria (2005). Frauen-Musik-Kultur: ein Handbuch zum deutschen Sprachgebiet der Frühen Neuzeit (in German). Böhlau Verlag. pp. 281–286. ISBN 3-64-756402-8. ^ Wiesner, Merry E., “The Reformation of the Women,” 148-149 ^ Grijp, Louis and Jolderma, Hermina (editors and translators), “Elisabeth’s Manly Courage: Testimonials and Songs of Martyred Anabaptist Women in the Low Countries,” ^ “Kloster Ebstorf”. Medieval Histories. 8 August 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2017. The monastery is mentioned for the first time in 1197. It belongs to the group of so-called Lüneklöstern (monasteries of Lüne), which became Lutheran convents following the Protestant Reformation. […] It is currently one of several Lutheran convents maintained by the Monastic Chamber of Hanover (Klosterkammer Hannover), an institution of the former Kingdom of Hanover founded by its Prince-Regent, later King George IV of the United Kingdom, in 1818, in order to manage and preserve the estates of Lutheran convents. ^ Allen, Charlotte. “The Holy Feminine.” Journal of Religion, Culture, and Public Life, 1999. Online: http://www.firstthings.com/article.php3?id_article=3241 ^ Luther, Martin. Lectures on Genesis 3:11. ^ Calvin, John. “A Sermon of M. Iohn Caluine upon the Epistle of Saint Paul, to Titus. Online: http://www.covenanter.org/JCalvin/titussermons/srmtts11.htm.
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^ Huguenot Women of the Tower of Constance ^ Robin, Diana Maury, Larsen, Anne R. and Levin, Carole (2007). Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. ABC-CLIO, Inc. p. 269. ^ Lindberg, Carter. “Legacies of the Reformation,” in The European Reformation Sourcebook. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2000. 261. ^ McNeill, Leila. “The 17th-Century Lady Astronomer Who Took Measure of the Stars”. Smithsonian. Retrieved 2018-08-27. ^ Erika Alma Metzger, Richard E. Schade: Sprachgesellschaften, galante Poetinnen, Daphnis, Amsterdam 1988, p. 622. ^ Gill, 1 Corinthians 14:34 ^ [1], John Wesley’s notes on the Bible, 1 Corinthians 14:34,35 ^ Adam Clarke’s commentary on the whole Bible, 1 Cor. 14:34,35 ^ Poole, Annotations upon the Holy Bible (1852) ^ http://www.searchgodsword.org/com/mhc-com/view.cgi?book=1co&chapter=014 ^ [2] Article viii; Bibliotheca sacra and theological review, Volume 27, pp. 739-763 ^ “Women in the church,” The Presbyterian quarterly, Volume 3, NO. 8.- April, 1889. pp. 166-179 ^ Albert Barnes’ Notes on the Bible, 1 Cor. 14:34,35 Sophia Brahe”. National Schools’ Observatory. Retrieved 7 September 2018. ^ Koldau, Linda Maria (2005). Frauen-Musik-Kultur: ein Handbuch zum deutschen Sprachgebiet der Frühen Neuzeit (in German). Böhlau Verlag. pp. 281–286. ISBN 3-64-756402-8. ^ Wiesner, Merry E., “The Reformation of the Women,” 148-149 ^ Grijp, Louis and Jolderma, Hermina (editors and translators), “Elisabeth’s Manly Courage: Testimonials and Songs of Martyred Anabaptist Women in the Low Countries,” ^ “Kloster Ebstorf”. Medieval Histories. 8 August 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2017. The monastery is
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mentioned for the first time in 1197. It belongs to the group of so-called Lüneklöstern (monasteries of Lüne), which became Lutheran convents following the Protestant Reformation. […] It is currently one of several Lutheran convents maintained by the Monastic Chamber of Hanover (Klosterkammer Hannover), an institution of the former Kingdom of Hanover founded by its Prince-Regent, later King George IV of the United Kingdom, in 1818, in order to manage and preserve the estates of Lutheran convents. ^ Allen, Charlotte. “The Holy Feminine.” Journal of Religion, Culture, and Public Life, 1999. Online: http://www.firstthings.com/article.php3?id_article=3241 ^ Luther, Martin. Lectures on Genesis 3:11. ^ Calvin, John. “A Sermon of M. Iohn Caluine upon the Epistle of Saint Paul, to Titus. Online: http://www.covenanter.org/JCalvin/titussermons/srmtts11.htm. ^ Huguenot Women of the Tower of Constance ^ Robin, Diana Maury, Larsen, Anne R. and Levin, Carole (2007). Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. ABC-CLIO, Inc. p. 269. ^ Lindberg, Carter. “Legacies of the Reformation,” in The European Reformation Sourcebook. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2000. 261. ^ McNeill, Leila. “The 17th-Century Lady Astronomer Who Took Measure of the Stars”. Smithsonian. Retrieved 2018-08-27. ^ Erika Alma Metzger, Richard E. Schade: Sprachgesellschaften, galante Poetinnen, Daphnis, Amsterdam 1988, p. 622. ^ Gill, 1 Corinthians 14:34 ^ [1], John Wesley’s notes on the Bible, 1 Corinthians 14:34,35 ^ Adam Clarke’s commentary on the whole Bible, 1 Cor. 14:34,35 ^ Poole, Annotations upon the Holy Bible (1852) ^ http://www.searchgodsword.org/com/mhc-com/view.cgi?book=1co&chapter=014
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^ [2] Article viii; Bibliotheca sacra and theological review, Volume 27, pp. 739-763 ^ “Women in the church,” The Presbyterian quarterly, Volume 3, NO. 8.- April, 1889. pp. 166-179 ^ Albert Barnes’ Notes on the Bible, 1 Cor. 14:34,35
Reformers in the emphasis of higher level of Christian education to match with
Secular and spiritual as well as mental development.
I refence the following article from Britannia.com. “The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. It has been suggested that this article be split into a new article titled Education reform in the United States. Education reform is the name given to the goal of changing public education. Historically, reforms have taken different forms because the motivations of reformers have differed. However, since the 1980s, education reform has been focused on changing the existing system from one focused on inputs to one focused on outputs (i.e., student achievement). In the United States, education reform acknowledges and encourages public education as the primary source of K-12 education for American youth. Education reformers desire to make public education into a market (in the form of an input-output system), where accountability creates high-stakes from curriculum standards tied to standardized tests.[1][2] As a result of this input-output system, equality has been conceptualized as an end point, which is often evidenced by an achievement gap among diverse populations.[3] This conceptualization of education reform is based on the market-logic of competition. As a consequence, competition creates inequality which has
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continued to drive the market-logic of equality at an end point by reproduce the achievement gap among diverse youth.[clarify] The one constant for all forms of education reform includes the idea that small changes in education will have large social returns in citizen health, wealth and well-being. For example, a stated motivation has been to reduce cost to students and society. From ancient times until the 1800s, one goal was to reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly educated full-time (extremely expensive) personal tutor. Historically, this was available only to the most-wealthy, cyclopedias, public libraries and grammar schools are examples of innovations intended to lower the cost of a classical education. Related reforms attempted to develop similar classical results by concentrating on “why”, and “which” questions neglected by classical education. Abstract, introspective answers to these questions can theoretically compress large numbers of facts into relatively few principles. This path was taken by some Transcendentalist educators, such as Amos Bronson Alcott. In the early modern age, Victorian schools were reformed to teach commercially useful topics, such as modern languages and mathematics, rather than classical subjects, such as Latin and Greek. Many reformers focused on reforming society by reforming education on more scientific, humanistic, pragmatic or democratic principles. John Dewey and Anton Makarenko are prominent examples of such reformers. Some reformers incorporated several motivations, e.g. Maria Montessori, who both “educated for peace” (a social goal), and to “meet the needs of the child” (A humanistic goal). In historic Prussia, an important motivation for the invention of Kindergarten was to foster national unity by teaching a national language while children were young enough that learning a language was easy. Proponents of evidence-based education call for the use of evidence in guiding education reform.
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Reform has taken many forms and directions. Throughout history and the present day, the meaning and methods of education have changed through debates over what content or experiences result in an educated individual or an educated society. Changes may be implemented by individual educators and/or by broad-based school organization and/or by curriculum changes with performance evaluations.”
All over the world, the education system under goes variable changes in attempt of having the best impartation of knowledge to students with the perspective of them gasping the understanding.”
Bibliography CARBONNIER-BURKARD Marianne et CABANEL Patrick, Une histoire des protestants en France, Desclée de Brouwer, Paris, 1998 CHAUNU Pierre, Le temps des Réformes II, Edition complex, 1984 PERONNET Michel, Le XVIe siècle, Hachette Col. U, 1981 Associated notes Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560)Jean Calvin (1509-1564)Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)Guillaume Farel (1489-1565)Martin Bucer (1491-1551)Théodore de Bèze (1519-1605)Gaspard de Coligny (1519-1572
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Higher Christian learning centers established.
Trail of education did not stop with the Protestant Reformation but it went viral, each reformer carried it further according to his understanding and interpretation of the Scriptures (Orthodoxy, Conservative, Liberal).
An article below, by Peter Lillback stresses the events and people who were Champions. The Reformation has been an extraordinary force for global education. The Middle Ages gave birth to the first European universities that trained a select cadre of scholars. But in the Protestant Reformation, the quest for universal education was unleashed. Martin Luther, a professor at the University of Wittenberg, early on called for the magistrates to establish schools so that children could learn to read the newly translated Scriptures and benefit from the learning of the ages. Later, John Calvin, in the French context, established the Academy of Geneva that became the center of Reformed theology. The educational methods of the Reformers reflected their theology. The goal of general literacy manifested the Reformation principle of the priesthood of all believers—all Christians have the spiritual privilege to read and to study the Scriptures for themselves. Sola Scriptura—the Scriptures as the only infallible source of saving knowledge and true wisdom—was buttressed by pedagogy consistent with Scripture. For the laity, this was accomplished by biblical literacy and catechisms. For adults and church leaders, confessions of faith served as summaries and standards of biblical doctrine and practice.
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The Reformers labored carefully to provide excellent theological content for the education of their people. Luther’s Small and Large Catechisms and the Augsburg Catechism were the early educational tools of Lutheranism. Calvin developed catechisms and confessions for Geneva. Heinrich Bullinger of Zurich wrote the Second Helvetic Confession, which has been appreciated throughout the Reformed tradition. Early Presbyterianism was defined by John Knox’s Scots Confession, which was superseded by the Westminster Shorter and Larger Catechisms as well as the Westminster Confession. The Continental Reformed tradition adopted the Three Forms of Unity—the Belgic Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, and the Canons of Dort, the last of which defines the classic five points of Calvinism. The educational value of catechisms and creeds has also been recognized by Anglicans, Congregationalists, and Reformed Baptists. The Reformation’s educational reforms also affected university studies. Speculative medieval scholasticism was replaced by a biblically grounded systematic theology. A worldview shaped by a belief in a sovereign Creator who rules an orderly cosmos encouraged the investigation of the empirical sciences. Linguistic studies accelerated. Latin was dethroned as the only scholarly language, since the common tongues of Europe had become capable of scholarly discussion due to the elevation of these languages by the translation of the Bible. Nevertheless, the study of the languages of biblical scholarship—Latin, Greek, and Hebrew—increased as a trained clergy became a reality. The Reformation’s educational impact spurred the printing industry, spawning libraries and advanced study in various disciplines. Some of the renowned academic centers greatly shaped by the Reformation are the universities in Wittenberg, Geneva, Zurich, Heidelberg, Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh.
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When the Puritans began their “errand in the wilderness” in New England, they carried with them a deep commitment to the educational emphases of the Reformation. For example, Harvard’s 1640 founding statement reads, After God had carried us safe to New England, and we had built our houses, provided necessaries for our livelihood, reared convenient places for God’s worship, and led the civil government, one of the next things we longed for and looked after was to advance learning and perpetuate it to posterity; dreading to leave an illiterate ministry to the churches, when our present ministers shall lie in the dust. The Reformation’s educational commitment has shaped both lower and higher education across America throughout American history and worldwide through global missions. American academic centers such as Yale and Princeton are fruits of the Reformation spirit, along with countless schools, colleges, and seminaries such as Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia and the recently established Reformation Bible College in Florida. International Christian missions continue to translate the Scriptures, advance literacy, and establish schools of every level in nations around the world. Ultimately, the Reformation’s educational emphasis results from biblical obedience to our Lord’s Great Commission: “Make disciples [that is, learners], teaching them everything I’ve commanded you” (Matt. 28:19–20).
Reference
Encyclopedia, Britannica.com/event/Reformation
Bibliography
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CARBONNIER-BURKARD Marianne et CABANEL Patrick, Une histoire des protestants en France, Desclée de Brouwer, Paris, 1998 CHAUNU Pierre, Le temps des Réformes II, Edition complex, 1984 PERONNET Michel, Le XVIe siècle, Hachette Col. U, 1981 Associated notes Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560)Jean Calvin (1509-1564)Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)Guillaume Farel (1489-1565)Martin Bucer (1491-1551)Théodore de Bèze (1519-1605)Gaspard de Coligny (1519-1572
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Chapter 5
21st Century Era and the Future of Christian education
Lack of commitment in this generation poses the elimination of faith in forth-coming generation.
When moral law is no longer taught or emphasized at the growth of children, by the parents or guardians; the more degradation of human behavior will drive our children far from fear and respect of God. The modern technology has stolen the desire and the will of seeking God the creator; believing in faithless knowledge which cannot grantee salvation of humanity. We are living in perilous days where truth has been exchanged with lies and righteousness with evil (2 Tim. 2:1-7). The following article sheds the light on this issue.
How Porn is contaminating kids
It was the other day I was watching TV news and the following article was posted on the screen. “With smartphones and wireless internet, gaining access to pornography has never been easier for young people. But experts say early exposure to porn can “rewire” young people’s brains, distort their views of sexual behavior, and even contribute to dating violence. Now, educators are trying to find ways to teach kids how to think critically about porn to help them foster healthier relationships. NOV 14, 2019.”
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Luke-warmness in faith communities, create or questions Christian held principles which have been the pillars of family, community and nation. Christian- lifestyle that betrays the truth is a road block that causes and hinders the potential Christ seekers to believe and decide to do otherwise. The tendency is that nonbelievers count themselves living better than those who shouts, claiming being followers of Jesus Christ. Pretense is the killer of someone’s desire of accepting Christ as Lord and savior.
“Righteousness exalts a nation, but sin is a disgrace to any people” (Prov.14:34).
By keeping God’s commandments (Ten commandments) of which the first four depicts the nature and due respect of God, whereas the last six governs human behavior in a society.
Our generation having bombarded in good and bad TV shows, media, and other vices, our teenagers are confused and accept whatever is available at the moment. Therefore, Christian education is very much needed to halt the trend of a nation’s decay. We all together know and can attest that, lack of moral law in the society leads to all kinds of evil vices, truth sacrificed to lies, and righteousness to evil, and life to death. So, our unchecked behavior causes unwarranted actions, against our norms.
Two-sided offer of technology.
Today: Technology substitutes human elements. Robots heading to eliminate humans from the labor force, and to make human beings disconnected. And finally, to make everything easy, shutting down human memory. We should use the technology wisely, for God gave the man mind to think right but not to destroy himself.
I have been keenly observing around, and taking keen interest on some family homes’ interactions, and found that there are no longer human elements in talking one on one fellowship; each member of the family is busy with cellphone surfing or texting friends and the silence greets the visitor. Now the question is, if the Bible reading, prayers and talking, is not found in such a community residence, how
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can someone expect to find faith? The bible says, “So then faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the word of God” (Rom.10:17). There is imminent danger in the society, we are not heading for better but destruction.
“The soul that sinneth, it shall die. The son shall not bear the iniquity of the father, neither shall the father bear the iniquity of the son: the righteousness of the righteous shall be upon him, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him” (Ezekiel 18:20).
Research: Source of references.
Bible,
Encyclopedia, Britannica.com/event/Reformation
Northwestern library,
Journals’ articles and websites. Ligonier.org
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Chapter 6
Conclusion
There are four major agencies that molds and shapes the children’s mental and spiritual development.
Home: Is the first place where Christian educations starts, parents or guardians are responsible for giving great care of how the children will become. The right food, information and practice determines the outcome. For example, Abraham was supposed to teach his children to fear God.
“And the Lord said, Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which I do; Seeing that Abraham shall surely become a great and mighty nation, and all nations of the earth shall be blessed in him? For I know him, that he will command his children and his household after him, and they shall keep the way the way of the Lord to do justice and judgement; that the Lord may bring upon Abraham that which he has spoken of him (Gen.18:17-19).”
Eli the priest was a contrast, he did not restrain his children to do evil in the sight of God. “Now Eli was very old, and heard all that his sons did unto all Israel; and how they lay with the women that assembled at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation. And he said unto them, Why do ye such things? For I hear of your evil dealings by all these people. Nay, my sons; for it is no good report that I hear: ye make the Lord’s people to transgress. Wherefore kick ye at my sacrifice and at mine offering offerings, which I have commanded in my habitation; and honourest thy sons above me, to make yourselves fat with the chiefest of all the offerings of Israel my people? (Sam.2:22,23,24,27,29).
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Church: Is the place where children learn more about their connectivity with God and faith community, exploring diversity in a cultural set up. Learning to respect the dignity of others in mutual understanding.
Government: It’s the total responsibility of any government to give maximum internal and external security to all citizens.
Where the environment is conducive: Christian and secular education become productive or produce responsible, faithful, available committed, teachable, and organized citizens. The community environment contributes the sense of belonging to a larger social relationship, e.g. In games, and in other events which cuts off isolation.
Summary of the data from the abstract: The difference between teaching and instructing. Teaching bears the burden of imparting knowledge to the learner, or bringing known to unknown, the information that has not been there, and once it has been disseminated, become helpful.
Instruction prides itself in practicum that is, showing by methods and action, where eyes, hands and ears are at work at the same time. For example, learning how to drive a car, eyes on the street, hands on steering wheel and ears listening to the instructor. Moral behavior, takes instructions through reading the Bible, listening to sermons and keeping the company with those who use integrity rather than expedience.
Therefore, teaching and instructing brings change, and change brings progress, and progress brings joy, and joy without God is fruitless.
“My son, beware of anything beyond these. Of making many books there is no end, and much study is a weariness of the flesh. The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man. For God will bring every deed into judgment, with every secret thing, whether good or evil” (Ecclesiastes 12:12-14).
My most pleasant time of joy: Though I may have all the knowledge, money and possessions this world may contain, they cannot substitute the joy of a single soul, that which become a citizen of heaven.
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The reasons why a believe and teach Monotheistic theology (in Trinity).
1. God declares that he is only One God.
2. Jesus Christ is the image of true God.
3. Jesus himself claimed he is the son of God.
4. Jesus was born, died on the cross, buried, resurrected, ascended to heaven.
5. He forgives sins.
6. He is descending the second time on earth.
7. Lastly, none of the world Religious founders have the above characteristics.
There are those people who hold on Polytheistic, Pantheistic, Animistic and atheistic beliefs and perceptions.
1.
Bibliography
http://www.africanchristian.org African Christianity ^ a b Olga Cecilia Méndez González (April 2013). Thirteenth Century England XIV: Proceedings of the Aberystwyth and Lampeter Conference, 2011. Orbis Books. ISBN 9781843838098., page 103-104 ^ a b E.J. Brill’s First Encyclopedia of Islam 1913-1936, Volume 5. BRILL. 1993. ISBN 9004097910. ^ Rosalind Shaw, Charles Stewart, Syncretism/Anti-Syncretism: The Politics of Religious Synthesis (1994) ^ Johnson, Todd M.; Zurlo, Gina A.; Hickman, Albert W.; Crossing, Peter F. (November 2017). “Christianity 2018: More African Christians and Counting Martyrs”. International Bulletin of Mission Research. 42 (1): 20–28. doi:10.1177/2396939317739833. Retrieved 24 September 2019. ^ Mauro, J.-P. (24 July 2018). “Africa overtakes Latin America for the highest Christian population”. Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture. Retrieved 24 September 2019. ^ Eusebius of Caesarea, the author of Ecclesiastical History in the 4th century, states that St. Mark came
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