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A well constructed dissertation that will be accepted by the board of examiners. To facilitate the awarding of PhD in Christian Education Major.Trail of Christian Education Dissertation
THE CONTENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Dissertation)
I Introduction
II Chapter 1.
BC’s Era
Wisdom of Egyptians
A. Method of education and recording.
B. Moses our model in education.
C. Culture and language.
D. Interaction with other foreigners.
E. Geographical location (Northern Easter Africa).
F. The future in biblical perspective.
G. The Exit.
III Chapter 2
AD’s Era
The short genealogy of Moses.
The Old Testament (Hebrew Bible).
Jesus affirmed the Monotheistic theology.
Jesus’ crucial teachings opposed to Judaism.
Following a Jesus’ method of teaching.
Apostolic Period (Preaching and Teaching).
IV Chapter 3
Medieval Era
The Church Fathers’ in formulating and connotation of Scriptures.
Eight singled out African Church fathers whose influence is still today in Christianity.
Philosophers who attempted to find the existence of life.
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Different schools of thought aggrandized.
Septuagint- Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible; why and what effect it has in Christian education?
Philosophical ideas taking preference above the scriptural outset.
Formal education in the middle of Ages (500-1500).
Proponents of Christian education in the precedent of the Reformation.
V Chapter 5
Reformation Era
Faith surpasses a tradition or ritualism.
Women in the Protestant Reformation.
Higher Christian Centers were established.
VI Chapter six
21st Century Era
The future of Christian education.
How Porn is contaminating Kids.
Two-sided offer of technology.
VII Chapter 7
Conclusion
Bibliography
Title: The Trail of Christian Education
Stanley Njuguna Njoroge
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ID N1838-9261
Dr. Samuel Galloza
University Accelerated Degree Program
PhD- Christian Education
Northwestern Doctor of Philosophy Program
Copy Right: “The author hereby grants to Northwestern permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this dissertation document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created.”
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1.
Introduction
Egypt: great country of Africa would stand as the trailblazer of modern Christian education. Definition of education from BC toward AD. Our twenty- first century Educational perspective. Teacher/Learner relationship in both Secular, and Religious instructions. Use of language as the means of deculturalization.
What role do secular and religious instructions, play in world Educational Development?
1.
Chapter 1
BC’s Era:
Wisdom of Egyptians
“Starting in about 3500 B.C., various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 B.C[3] The oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 B.C. from a hieroglyphic prototype. One hieroglyphic script was used on stone monuments,[4] other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink
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on papyrus,[4] a flexible, paper-like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile”.
Method of education and recording
In ancient Egypt, literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes’ status. The rate of literacy in Pharaonic Egypt during most periods from the third to first millennium BC has been estimated at not more than one percent,[13] or between one half of one percent and one percent.[14]
Moses our model in Education
In today’s assessment, Moses could be placed among the most learned.
He attended the best University in Egypt learnt politics, Military combat and (religious instructions from his mother and his sister Miriam). Remember, a two years old child, has the capability of acquiring knowledge. His name Moses (means drawn out of the water) was given by Pharoah’s daughter while adopting him as her own son, who gradual would be the heir of the Kingdom (Ex.2:5-10 KJV).
Stephen the deacon, in his execution by stoning declared these words “and Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and in deeds” (Acts 7:22 KJV); Moses as adopted son, he is an Egyptian citizen but an Israelite in heart. He killed an Egyptian in defense of his real tribe man. This action was rehearsed in Pharoah’s ears and Moses knew in advance that he is to face death so he fled away as a vagabond.
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Culture and language
The language of a people maintains the culture and tradition in a given geographical region, countries
and Continents. By use of a language, deculturization takes place. For example, African countries such as Kenya, Nigeria and south Africa were forced by colonization or adapted English foreign language, as a national language in communication. Therefore, language become one of the key factors of an influence to change peoples’ culture, and bring in new ideas of which, steadily bring development in educational, social, political, economic and religious beliefs.
“In ancient Egypt hieroglyphic signs were primarily pictorial and ideographic, signs, some of them served as acrophones which do not represent whole words but only their initial sounds. The reader is left to interpret the sign from the context in acrophonic system (abbreviation) and give sound.
Alphabetic abbreviations became possible around 100 BC and was common in the classical world.
Greek letters IXθYE( make the word for (‘fish’) stood for Ἰησοῦς Χριστός Θεοῦ ( Jesus Christ Son of God Saviour), and as a result of their use , the fish became a Christian symbol. The Latin INRI in Roman language Iesus Nazaraeus Rex Iudaeorum (Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews).”
Short form AD stands for ‘Anno Domini’, that is, from the year of our Lord. Then native creations such as BC which stands for ‘Before Christ’. All such devices have become over the centuries so institutionalized
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that they are seldom considered as original. On the Cross of Jesus three languages were in scripted by King Herod, namely, in Hebrew, Latin and Greek. “THI IS JESUS THE KING OF THE JEWS” (Matt. 27: 37).
Interaction with other foreigners
We do know the language of any group of people does demonstrate the power of communication. If animals have the capability of understanding human language, they could be able to lodge their appreciation and mistreatment, and claim their equal rights to live in cities just as men rather than in jungles. Thus, education is very important to elevate human beings vertically and horizontally
Since Egypt was one of the civilized countries in Africa and world, where education was highly esteemed; it is not a surprise to see philosophers such as Pilato, Aristotle and others, all gained their philosophical ideas from Egyptians wisdom and went back to Greece (Europe) and they formulated what we call western philosophy (Greek). Oral and pictorial education had to be substituted to a more technical biding recording.
“The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others.
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The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended.” Thus, Egypt became the trailblazer of modern education.
Geographical location
Northern East Africa and East Africa
Figure 1
Former East Africa countries consists of Kenya, Uganda Tanzania, recently includes: Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan (Because of economical purposes, EAC); horn of Africa composed of Ethiopia, Djibouti,
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Eritrea and Somalia. If there would be Super Highways from Kenya through Sudan or Ethiopia heading North East would definitely reach Cairo, Egypt; the largest city in Africa. Think of those old days, without cars neither planes, yet people trekked to neighborhood countries.
The location of ancient Egypt was in North-Eastern Africa, having formed and flourished along the lower portion of the Nile River. It made up most of what is now the modern Arab Republic of Egypt. Ancient Egypt had four main divisions of its land, the first two being the Upper and Lower Egypt.
That means Moses was able to trek from Egypt to Midian-Palestine, spent forty years in the wilderness as a shepherd. I would call this time, God’s theological seminary for Moses to be shaped as a future leader.
Figure 2
The Black Land – The Black Land was the soil and land all along the banks of the Nile River. The soil is extremely fertile, especially after the Nile River flooded. Egypt is south of the Mediterranean Sea, west of the Red Sea, east of Libya, and north of Sudan. It is located in the North Eastern corner of Africa.
Does the black land represent black people? My argument is that, if we truly base the color, as our determining factor of created beings; then I would say Adam and Eve were neither white nor black but they were chocolate in color (dust). Let us not be bias when we talk about education, it is for all.
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The future in biblical perspective (The call of Moses).
Christian Education was birthed from the day God called Moses,(in burning bush) while he was shepherding the flock of his father’s in law Jethro, the high priest of Midianites: (in fact Midian was a son of Abraham with Keturah the progenitor of all Midianites) sent him to Egypt, to deliver Israelites from the land of bondage- Egypt. Although Moses was educated in Egypt, he went back with impartation of God’s divine wisdom at the burning bush. “Moses, Moses … put off thy shoes, from of thy feet for the place whereon thou standest is a holy ground” (Ex. 3:1-10).
Moses acted as a politician-liberator, in the presence of Pharoah. “let my people go” is repeated several times in (Ex. 7:16; 8:1,20; 9:1,13).
The Exit
After the departure from Egypt and farthing for some time in the wilderness, God called Moses to the top of mount Sinai.
Although, Adam and Eve were the first people to converse with God, and were instructed never to eat the fruits of the tree of knowledge and evil; they never had possessed the written words. This came much later to Moses, as the appointed Prophet of God; of whom God revealed himself as the creator of all things, heavenly, earthly and underworld. “I am that I am”. Moses was not only the one God revealed
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to, He also revealed himself to others through dreams and visions (prophets and prophetesses” (Job 33:14,15; Heb.1:1,2).
God as the first Author and publisher of the Pentateuch and Ten Commandments, handed them to Moses, to be read and obeyed, as a mark of separation from Egyptians’ gods. All instructions pertaining to holiness, righteousness, civility, pattern, ecology and many other moral laws were embodied. Torah and other Old Testament books played a great role in the lives of the Jews people.
Systematic teaching was introduced, it paved the way for Christian Education
The five books of the law were to be taught to all children; eternalized and memorized in oral and writing from one generation to the other. Moses was God’s spokesman and peoples’ mediator. The Hebrew bible contains 24 books inclusive of law, historical, poetry, prophets (Deut. 6:4-7:1-11).
“ This words, which I command thee this day ,shall be in thine heart: And thou shall teach them diligently unto thou children and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up” ( Deut. 6:6,7).
God is the Master teacher, he taught Moses and Moses in turn, was the instructor to all Hebrews, oral and writing was the methodology maintained. God’s sole purpose to reveal himself to humanity is to manifest his mercy, love, salvation and expect obedience. This was a monotheism theology not polytheism theology of Egyptians.
I suppose it is of paramount importance to have knowledge but the question is, are we dealing with assumptions, presuppositions or historical facts of a person who once existed? To answer this question, there are out there, many written stories depicting Moses invariable characters. Mythology in many Countries were told orally, written, of a man who was courageous and who demonstrated his leadership in coming out of a land of slavery.
Let us see his origin by observing a short genealogy in chapter two (2). Modern science (Archeology) has played a vital role in exposing the buried past sites, declaring historical facts.
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Chapter 2
The short genealogy of Moses.
Amram married Jochebed his aunt or sister of his father Kohath, and he was the father of Aaron, Moses and Miriam (I Chr. 1-3; Ex. 1: 1-10; 6:16, 20).
Amram, Jochebed, and their daughter Miriam, (with God’s help), had saved Moses’ life; by putting him in a closed basket and put it in the river. Miriam suggested to Pharaoh’s daughter, to find a Hebrew woman who can help breast- feed the baby. When Moses was approximately two years old, he was weaned; and now his mother brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter. He would have all the advantages of a prince, including the best education. “Moses” means drawing out. (I Chr.6:1-3 Ex. 16, 20).
Jacob (Israel) with Leah bore Levi (Gen. 29:34) Reuben was the first born, Simeon second born, Levi third born and Judah fourth born, Issachar fifth born, Zebulun sixth born and a daughter, Dinah.
Bilhah Rachel’s maid gave birth to two sons – Dan and Naphtali.
Zilphal Leah’s maid gave birth, two sons- Gad and Asher.
Rachel bore Joseph, and at her labor-death for the second child, she bore a son and called him Ben-oni, but Jacob called him Benjamin. Rachel died and was buried in Bethlehem. (Gen 35 17, 18). All sons of Jacob (Israel) were 12 inclusive.
Levi’s three sons, Gershon, Kohath and Merari.
Kohath had four sons Amram, Izehar, Hebron and Uzziel.
Amram had two sons, Aron, Moses and a daughter Miriam
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I earlier had stated that, God called Moses to be a deliverer of Israelites from Egypt: but this time round, he is going there as a converted Moses, not the murderer, not elite and fearful man, but as a prophet-politician and a priest with boldness, and supernatural power.
Moses went to Egypt with what God orally gave him, to face Pharoah and his fellow men under oppression.
Old testament – Hebrew Bible
There is no proper effective, productive education, in both secular and religious endeavor, without the availability of the material source. Old Testament, categorically is called Hebrew Bible, there are first five books (the Torah) which are credited to Moses.
God introduced Himself to Moses as “I am that I am” This is monotheistic theology. But Moses had a knowledge of Polytheism in Egypt.
An article from Britannica has this to say:
“Monotheism, belief in the existence of one god, or in the oneness of God. As such, it is distinguished from polytheism, the belief in the existence of many gods, from atheism, the belief that there is no god, and from agnosticism, the belief that the existence or nonexistence of a god or of gods is unknown or unknowable. Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and elements of the belief are discernible in numerous other religions.”
Surely, I grew up in Kenya, East Africa and in my Gikuyu tribe (Kikuyu), we worshiped and sacrificed to a monotheistic God, so within our beliefs, He is the creator, provider and protector of all things. Under a sacred sycamore tree, (Mugumo) is where Elders would gather together and slaughter unblemished
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lamb and pray for the rain, and any other ailments; there and then, the pouring of rain, could send them off. And there are evil spirits that bring omens, sicknesses or calamity. In our culture, we had no written books but orally passed down information from generation to generation; until the era of missionaries who brought education in written form and medical awareness, which transformed some of our cultural traditions and customs with an intention of evangelization. Not all White men came as missionaries, some came as businessmen and farmers, who took natives’ land and planted coffee trees and tea, (plantations) of which later on brought bitterness among natives against settlers. The seed of anger grew to the extent that majority of natives questioned how foreigners could they possess mass of land without price? Hear what Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South Africa said on his visit to US in 1984: ‘When the Missionaries first came to Africa, they had the Bible and we had the land. They said “Let us pray.” We closed our eyes. When we opened them again we had the Bible and they had the land.’ But gradually religious education dominated the area or region that welcomed and hosted missionaries. And because of royalty of those natives who accepted the doctrines of White Missionaries a gap was created between Christians and animists.
Jesus’ crucial teachings opposed to Judaism.
We need to have a critical observation on the question of Jesus’ both divine and human nature: the reason: it is because some people do not believe in two distinct natures in one person; holding on peccability and impeccability school of thought. What does scripture say? “Thou madest him a little lower than angels; thou crownedst him with glory and honour, and didst set him over the works of thy hands: Forasmuch then as the children are partakers of flesh and blood, he also himself likewise took part of the same; that through death he might destroy him that had the power of death, that is, the devil: For verily he took not on him the nature of angels: but he took on him the seed of Abraham” (Heb. 2:7,14,16).
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“He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of every creature. For by Him were all things created that are in heaven and that are on earth, visible and invisible, whether they be thrones or dominions or principalities or powers: all things were created by Him and for Him. And He is before all things, and by Him all things consist. And He is the head of the body, the church. He is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, that in all things He might have the preeminence” (Col. 1:15-18 KJ21).
Thus, Jesus’ conception was not by man but by Holy Spirit. There is no way we can say Joseph was the biological father of Jesus but a Guardian. Jesus interacted with humans as a man, no objection on that perception, and he was Emanuel (God with us). God’s covenant to David of a Messianic King; Jesus in his first advent never fulfilled the prophecy of being a King, but as a savior he died on the cross for humanity. His second advent, he then will fulfill the prediction and reign as promised “the seed or branch of David”.
The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christendom, and the Church with its various denominations, from the 1st century to present…Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus in the 1st century in Roman province of Judea. According to the Gospels, Jesus was a Jewish teacher and healer who proclaimed the imminent Kingdom of God, and was crucified at c.30–33 AD.
Jesus affirmed the monotheistic theology and repudiated the polytheistic doctrine.
Jesus declared: “The first of all commandments is, Hear O Israel; The Lord our God is one Lord: And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thine strength: this is the first commandment. And the second is like, namely this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. There is none other commandment greater than these (Mk.12:29,30,3 KJV).
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FOLLOWING JESUS’ METHOD OF TEACHING
We have four ways, Jesus Christ used in his ministry which are recorded in (Mark 8:16-21).
Teaching from negative to positive (Mt.5: 1-).
Teaching by asking questions (Mk. 8: 17-21). Six questions without answers and two questions with answers. The purposes or ultimate goal is to drive the truth deep into the heart and mind.
Teaching with similitude (Mt. 5:1).
Teaching from known to unknown- e. g “As it was in the days of Noah—So it shall be”.
“What can profit a man if he can gain the whole world, and loose his own soul? (Mk. 8:36).
Apostolic period (Preaching and Teaching).
The ministries of the Apostles are clearly and soundly recorded in the book of Acts.
The main and outstanding men are:
Peter who in the Day of Pentecost preached and three thousand people were converted in one occasion, moment, and time (Acts 2).
Peter and John were prisoned and warned never to preach in the name of Jesus; the thing they declared “we cannot stop for we have seen, heard and handled it” (Jn. 4:). Stephen the deacon, who preached fearlessly, was stoned to death. And as he was dying prayed for his executioner that they should be forgiven (Acts 7:59,60).
Phillip the soul winner, approached an Ethiopian on the road, approached, and one on one conversation; he led the man to believe and accepted Jesus Christ as his personal savior (This is personal evangelism) (Acts. 8: 27,35,37-40).
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Paul the hardcore, persecutor of Christians, turned to be the champion of what he previously determined to destroy. He encountered Christ on his way to Damascus (Acts 9:1-15).
These men: Luke, Mark, Silas, Barnabas, Timothy and Titus became Paul’s companions in his preaching ministry, reaching cities with the saving Gospel. But Phillip became an outstanding deacon, among Church elected officials, in the midst of the Church going through the persecution; he went to Antioch and preached, many people were converted to Christianity.
Chapter 3
Medieval Era:
The Church Fathers’ role in formulating and connotation of Scriptures.
“Therefore, following the holy fathers, we all with one accord should teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, at once complete in Godhead”.
The Church history, is well presented and preserved by those who did trailblazing in Christian education.
Trailblazers in African perspective, are those who get wet and face hardships in clearing the path for others to follow, and sometimes, the animals do that where there is long grass covering the path.
The Role of Church Fathers was so great that their influence to this day is upheld in every Christian belief, faith and practice.
Wikipedia › wiki › Christianity in Africa – Wikipedia
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The article below shows eight important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity. The roaster: Tertullian, Perpetua, Felicity, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius and Augustine of Hippo, presents such information.
For example. “The Church of Saint George, Lalibela, Ethiopia Christianity in Africa began in Egypt in the middle of the 1st century. By the end of the 2nd century it had reached the region around Carthage. Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian, Perpetua, Felicity, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius and Augustine of Hippo. In the 4th century the Aksumite empire was Christianized, and the Nubian kingdoms of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia followed two centuries later. Since the spread of Islam into North Africa, the size of Christian congregations as well as their number was reduced, so that of the original churches only the Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria and Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (which separated from each other during the Chalcedonian Schism) in Egypt and the Orthodox Tewahedo Church (that split into Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) in the Horn of Africa remained. The Ethiopian church held its own distinct religious customs and a unique canon of the Bible. The Ethiopian church community in the Horn of Africa wasn’t the product of European missionary work, rather, it had spread through missionaries much earlier (while the P’ent’ay churches are works of a Protestant reformation within Ethiopian Christianity).[1] The position of the head of the Catholic Church of Africa (Archdiocese of Carthage), the only one permitted to preach in the continent, in 1246 belonged to the bishop of Morocco.[2] The bishopric of Marrakesh continued to exist until the late 16th century.[3] “Christianity is embraced by the majority of the population in most Southern African, Southeast African, and Central African states and others in some parts of Horn of Africa and West Africa. The Coptic
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Christians make up a significant minority in Egypt. The World Book Encyclopedia has estimated that in 2002 Christians formed 40% of the continent’s population, with Muslims forming 45%. In a relatively short time, Africa has gone from having a majority of followers of indigenous, traditional religions, to being predominantly a continent of Christians and Muslims. Since 2013, traditional African religions are declared as the majority religion only in Togo. Importantly, today within most self-declared Christian communities in Africa, there is significant and sustained syncretism with African Traditional Religious beliefs and practices.[4]. New data from the Gordon Theological Seminary shows that, for the first time ever, more number of Christians live in Africa than on any other single continent.[5]” “The results show Africa on top with 631 million Christian residents, Latin America in 2nd place with 601 million Christians, and Europe in 3rd place with 571 million Christians.”[6]
By this succession, the ecclesiastical tradition from the apostles, and the preaching of the truth, have come down to us. And this is most abundant proof that there is one and the same live-giving faith, which has been preserved in the church from the apostles until now, and handed down in truth.” –Irenaeus of Lyons, c. 180 AD
Who Are the Church Fathers?
Tertullian
The term church fathers refer to Christian writers and theologians of the first eight centuries of the Christian church, especially the period of development up to 451 AD. {1} The church fathers are sometimes further divided into Apostolic Fathers, who wrote in the first century, and the Ante-Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, who wrote before and after the Council of Nicean (325 AD), respectively. The period during which the church fathers wrote is known as the Patristic Period and the academic study of these writers is called Patristics. Both terms derive from the Latin word pater, meaning “father.”
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The church fathers are of great importance to Christianity because they formulated nearly all of the Christian doctrine that is accepted by Christians today. They interpreted the Bible in light of challenges from Greek thought and various heretical movements, determined Christianity’s relationship to Judaism, elaborated on theological concepts such as the Trinity and salvation, and established the structure and organization of the church.
The Patristic Period
The earliest church fathers wrote in the latter part of the first century (80-100 AD), around the time the biblical canon was closed. These writers were especially concerned with practical matters like faith, righteous living and church organization. The writings of this period consist primarily of letters between churches and exhortations to keep the faith in the midst of persecution. These writers are known as the “Apostolic Fathers” for their close connection with the apostles, and include Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Hermas, Polycarp and Papias, as well as the unknown authors of the Epistle of Barnabas, the Epistle of Diognetus, 2 Clement, and the Didache.
Around the turn of the first century, Christian writers began to turn their attention outward in defense of Christianity against false claims made by Roman persecutors and demonstrating Christianity’s reasonableness to minds trained on Greek philosophy. These writings were usually addressed to Roman emperors or other pagan critics, and their authors are known as the “Apologists.” Among the most important apologists are Justin Martyr and Tertullian. Augustine’s lengthy City of God is also considered an apologetic work.
The fathers of the second and third centuries also directed their efforts towards combatting what they saw as heresy, or false interpretations of the Christian faith. After the conversion of Emperor Constantine and the end of persecution in 313 AD, Christian writers turned from apologetics to focus almost exclusively on this task. No longer threatened from without, the church still faced threats from within. By the turn of the first century AD, most Christian converts were Gentiles, not Jews. These
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converts brought with them many ways of understanding Christianity, and often their perspectives on Christianity were quite different from that of most church leaders. Thus the church fathers from the fourth century onward were focused especially on the defense of what they saw as the true Christian faith (orthodoxy) against corruptions or misunderstandings (heresy).
Further complicating the situation, the conversion of the emperor had made theology a political matter. After Constantine’s conversion, many new converts flooded into the church, for now Christianity was not only legal, it was the religion of the emperor and therefore politically advantageous. Furthermore, Constantine and his successors viewed Christianity as a means for unifying the empire, and they had no patience for what they regarded as petty doctrinal differences. Thus Christian teachers who taught unorthodox doctrines were not only excommunicated from the church but exiled from the empire. Not surprisingly, the success of a particular theological position was sometimes directly related to who had the ear of the emperor at the moment. Athanasius, honored by all Christians today as a great defender of orthodoxy, was exiled and reinstated no less than eight times as the political winds shifted.
Clement of Rome
Traditionally held to be the third bishop of Rome (i.e., pope)
Author of 1 Clement, a letter to the Corinthian church
Many other writings ascribed to him that are probably not authentic (including 2 Clement, the Clementine Homilies and Recognitions)
For more information, see Clement of Rome.
Hermas
Lived in Rome
Nothing is known of him except that he is the author of The Shepherd, a record of visions regarded by much of the Eastern Church as scripture and is included immediately after the New Testament in the early manuscript Codex Sinaiticus
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Ignatius of Antioch (d. 107)
Bishop of Antioch
Traveled under guard from Asia Minor to Rome to be martyred
Met with at least five churches along the way (Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia, Smyrna)
Author of letters to each of these churches plus one to Rome and one to Polycarp, which were collected and venerated shortly after his death
Viewed the office of bishop as an important safeguard of the unity of the Church
Papias (c.60-130)
Bishop of Hierapolis (Asia Minor)
Wrote Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord (known only from quotations in Irenaeus and Eusebius), which contains oral traditions and legends
His Expositions is especially important for its information on the writing of the gospels
Polycarp (c.69-c.155)
Bishop of Smyrna (in Turkey)
Only his Epistle to the Philippians survives
According to The Martyrdom of Polycarp, a contemporary account, he was arrested during a pagan festival and burnt to death when he refused to recant his faith
Feast day is February 23
Justin Martyr (c. 100-c.165)
Born in Samaria
Converted from paganism after a long search for truth
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Considered the greatest of the Apologists
Wrote First Apology, Second Apology, and Dialogue with Trypho the Jew
Argued that God had provided hints of Christ in Greek philosophy through the logos spermatikos (“seed-bearing word”)
Beheaded for refusing to sacrifice to pagan gods
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130-c.200)
Born in Smyra (in Turkey), moved to Rome, then settled in Lyons. Disciple of Polycarp
Bishop of Lyons (France) from c. 178 to c. 200
Wrote against Gnosticism, especially that of Valentinus
Most significant work is Against Heresies (full title Detection and Overthrow of the Falsely Named “Knowledge”)
Major themes include the Christian doctrine of salvation and the importance of holding to apostolic tradition in the face of other interpretations
Taught the notion of “recapitulation,” in which Christ is the consummation of creation and God’s purpose for the world
For more information, see Irenaeus of Lyons.
Hippolytus of Rome (c.170-c.236)
Roman priest
Wrote against Sabellianism
Criticized Pope Callistus for lax policy of readmitting penitents to communion and may have been elected by a group of dissidents as a rival pope
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Principal work is Refutation of all Heresies (discovered in the 19th cent.), which argues that all heresies derive from pagan philosophy
Historically important is his treatise The Apostolic Tradition (written c.215), which describes in detail the sacraments of ordination, baptism and the Eucharist
Feast day: August 13 (West) or January 30 (East)
Origen of Alexandria (c.185-c.254)
Widely regarded as the most important theologian and biblical scholar of the early Greek church.
Born of Christian parents in Alexandria, Egypt
Father was martyred and Origen was prevented from also seeking martyrdom by his mother’s intervention
Lived an ascetic life and legend has it that he castrated himself so he could teach women without scandal
Worked as a teacher in the Alexandrian catechetical school, an unordained preacher, and a prolific theological writer
Major work is the Hexapla, a synopsis of six versions of the Old Testament
Other works include the Stromateis (Miscellanies), On the Resurrection, On First Principles, On Prayer, and numerous commentaries and sermons
Origen’s theology focused on the goodness of God and the freedom of mankind
Some of his teachings have been controversial, such as his suggestion of the preexistence of souls, the inferiority of the Son, and eventual salvation of all beings including Satan
He is regarded as a saint by some and a heretic by others, and was never canonized by the church. The eminent church historian Henry Chadwick puts it this way: “If orthodoxy were a matter of intention, no theologian could be more orthodox than Origen, none more devoted to the cause of Christian faith.”
For more information, see Origen of Alexandria.
Trail of Christian Education
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Tertullian (c.160-c.225)
Born in Carthage, North Africa
First important Latin church father
Converted to Christianity sometime before 197 AD
Wrote numerous theological, moral, and polemical works, including Apology, The Soldier’s Crown, On Penitence, On the Incarnation of Christ, Against Heretics, Against Marcion, and Against Praxeus
Was rigorous in his insistence on separation from pagan society and adherence to the faith under any circumstances
Though he made use of philosophy and rational argument, he is known for arguing that pagan philosophy has no place in the church: “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” and “It is certain because it is impossible.”
Another famous quote is: “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.”
Athanasius (c. 296-c.373) Bishop of Alexandria
Fought against any compromise with Arianism after the Council of Nicea (325 AD)
Was repeatedly deposed and exiled as the Arian party gained power, then restored to his position as the other side ascended
Finally restored in 366
Wrote On the Incarnation of Christ sometime before 318
Also wrote Life of Antony, making monasticism known to the West
For more information, see Athanasius.
Jerome (