HRT601 Correlational Research Methods Questions Response Please answer the questions in the word documents, I will provide the chapter Powerpoint that rela

HRT601 Correlational Research Methods Questions Response Please answer the questions in the word documents, I will provide the chapter Powerpoint that relates to these questions. Please don’t just copy and paste the word from online or Powerpoint, maybe describe it in your own words will be better. HRT 601 Research Methods
Final Exam
Name: _____________
Please submit the answers electronically.
1. (20 points ) Write an executive summary of what you learned in this class. Identify what you
think the main points of the course have been, and three things that you feel are important
enough to carry with you into your future endeavors. If you cannot think of three such
things, please indicate that rather than omitting the information altogether.
2. (15 Points) Chapter 9 identifies several weaknesses related to survey data. Note one of
these weaknesses and discuss the associated problems and possible ways to minimize
them.
3. (15 Points) A researcher wishes to study developmental changes in people’s preference for
action movies. How will the researcher collect data for:
a. A longitudinal study:
b. Study design:
c. A cross-sectional study
d. Study design:
4. (15 Points) Dr. Robbins wants to know if there are different opinions regarding the value of
public school education between Native Americans who have at least one relative who
attended Indian Boarding School and Native Americans who have no family experience
with Indian Boarding School. Dr. Robbins contacts 35 Native American participants in each
group. He wants each group to include younger as well as older adults, and a mix of male
and female participants. He asks each person to complete a survey about their attitudes
toward public education. In this study, what is the
a. independent variable;
b. dependent variable;
c. Study design:
5. (20 Points) A medical researcher is concerned about mistakenly concluding that a new
medication is effective when it really is not. What type of error is the researcher
concerned about making (Type I or Type II)? Describe what the researcher might do to
decrease the likelihood of making that type of error. Discuss ramifications of your
suggested approach for other types of error in the study.
6.(15 points) Note several steps researchers can take to optimize the power of their
statistical tests.
Chapter Nine:
Descriptive Quantitative Research
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
1
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Descriptive Research Designs
• Observation Studies
• Correlational Research
• Developmental Designs
• Survey Research
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
2
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Observation Studies
• Characteristics:
– might involve humans, animals, plants, nonliving objects
– tends to have a particular prespecified focus
– behavior being studied is quantified in some way
– involves considerable advance planning, meticulous
attention to detail, and a great deal of time
– provides a quantitative alternative to qualitative
approaches, such as ethnographies and grounded theory
studies
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
3
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Correlational Research
• A correlational study examines the extent to which differences in one
variable or characteristic are related to differences in one or more
other variables or characteristics.
• In correlational studies, researchers gather data about two or more
characteristics for a particular group of people or other appropriate
units of study in order to determine whether and in what way these
characteristics might be interrelated.
• Correlational data is plotted on a scatter plot.
• Correlation does not, in and of itself, indicate causation.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
4
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Developmental Designs
• Two Developmental Designs:
1. Cross-sectional study: people from several different age
groups are sampled and compared.
2. Longitudinal study: a single group of people is followed
over time, and data related to the characteristics under
investigation are collected at various times.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
5
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Survey Research
• Involves acquiring information about one or more groups of people —
about their characteristics, opinions, attitudes, etc. – by asking them
questions and tabulating the answers.
• Goal is to learn about a large population by surveying a sample of that
population.
• Also called a descriptive survey or normative survey.
• Simple design – the researcher poses a series of questions, quantifies
the responses, and draws inferences about a particular population
from the responses of the sample.
• Captures a fleeting moment of time; by drawing conclusions from the
transitory collection of data, extrapolation can be made about state
of affairs over a longer period of time.
• Relies on self-report data.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
6
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Types of Survey Research
• face-to-face interview
• telephone interview
• written questionnaire
• the Internet
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
7
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Face-to-Face Interview
• Structured
• Enables the researcher to establish rapport with participants
• Yields the highest response rates in survey research
• Time and expense involved may be prohibitive
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
8
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Telephone Interviews
• Structured
• Less expensive and time-consuming than face-to-face
interviews
• Accessible participants
• Response rate lower than for face-to-face interviews but
higher than for mailed questionnaires
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
9
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Paper-and-Pencil Questionnaires
• Can be sent out to large groups of people over a large
geographical area
• Participants can respond to questions with assurance of
remaining anonymous and thus may be more truthful
than in face-to-face or telephone interviews
• Have a low return rate
• Often make use of checklists and rating scales
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
10
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Internet
• Online surveys
• Can be sent to a wide number of people.
• Email addresses are required.
• Have a low return rate
• SNAP; Zoomerang; Survey monkey; etc.
• No data input required; saves a lot of time.
• Software helps in data analysis such as charts, etc.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
11
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Using Checklists and Rating Scales
• Checklist: a list of behaviors, characteristics,
or other entities under investigation.
• Rating Scale: used when a behavior, attitude, or
other phenomenon of interest needs to be
evaluated on a continuum (“never” to “always”)
– Likert Scale
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
12
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Guidelines:
Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
1.
Identify questions in advance.
2.
Consider how participants’ cultural backgrounds may influence responses.
3.
Make sure interviewees are representative of the group.
4.
Find a suitable location.
5.
Get written permission.
6.
Establish and maintain rapport.
7.
Focus on the actual rather than on the abstract/hypothetical.
8. Don’t put words in people’s mouths.
9. Record responses verbatim.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
13
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Guidelines:
Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study
(con’t)
10. Keep your reactions to yourself.
11. Remember you’re not necessarily getting the facts.
12. As you write questions, think about how to quantify responses.
13. Consider asking questions that will elicit qualitative information.
14. Pilot-test the questions.
15. Restrict each question to a single idea.
16. Save controversial questions for the latter part of the interview.
17. Seek clarifying information when necessary.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
14
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire
1. Keep it short.
2. Keep the respondent’s task simple.
3. Provide clear instructions.
4. Use simple, clear, unambiguous language.
5. Give a rationale for any item for which the purpose is unclear.
6. Check for unwarranted assumptions implicit in the question.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
15
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire (con’t)
7.
Word questions in ways that don’t give clues about preferred or
more desirable responses.
8.
Determine in advance how you will code the responses.
9.
Check for consistency (Example – Pg. 196).
10. Conduct one or more pilot tests to determine the validity of your
questionnaire.
11. Scrutinize the almost-final product one more time to make sure it
addresses your needs.
12. Make the questionnaire attractive and professional looking.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
16
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Guidelines: Maximizing the Return Rate
for a Mailed Questionnaire
1. Consider the timing.
2. Make a good first impression.
3. Motivate potential respondents.
4. Include a self-addressed, stamped envelope.
5. Offer the results of your study.
6. Be gently persistent.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
17
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Practical Application:
Computerizing Data Collection in Descriptive Research
1. Directly enter data as an observation is made.
2. Use the computer as a tape recorder.
3. Look for peripheral devices that can aid data collection.
4. Administer a questionnaire on a computer.
5. Use the computer to monitor the quality of the data being collected.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
18
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Sampling
• A sample is a subset of a large population.
• Results can be used to make generalizations about the
population….
• …Only if the sample is representative of the population.
• The researcher must provide a rationale for choosing
the sample.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
19
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Sampling Designs in a Descriptive Study
• Probability Sampling: the researcher specifies in
advance that each segment of the population is
represented in the sample.
• Nonprobability Sampling: the researcher has no
way of forecasting or guaranteeing that each
element of the population will be represented
in the sample. Some members of the population
have little or no chance of being sampled.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
20
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Probability Sampling
• Random selection: choosing a sample in such a
way that each member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected; assumes that the
characteristics of the sample approximate the
characteristics of the total population.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
21
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Nonprobability Sampling Techniques
• Convenience sampling: also known as accidental sampling;
takes samples that are readily available; appropriate for
less demanding research problems.
• Quota sampling: a variation of convenience sampling;
selects participants in the same proportion that they are
found in the general population, but not in a random
fashion.
• Purposive sampling: participants are chosen for a particular
purpose; the researcher must always provide a rationale
explaining the selection of a particular sample.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
22
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Choosing an Appropriate Sample Size
• The larger the sample, the better.
• For smaller populations (N=100 or fewer), survey the entire
population.
• If population is around 500, sample 50%.
• If population is around 1,500, sample 20%.
• If population is over 5,000, a sample size of 400 is fine.
• The larger the population, the smaller the percentage
needed for a representative sample.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
23
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Sampling Bias
• Bias: any influence, condition, or set of conditions that
singly or in combination distort the data.
• Sampling Bias: any influence that may disturb the
randomness by which the choice of a sample population
has been selected.
• Strategies for identifying sampling bias:
– Scrutinize the questionnaire for items that may be influenced by factors that
distinguish respondents from nonrespondents.
– Compare responses that were returned quickly with those that were returned
later (may reflect the kinds of responses that nonrespondents would have given.
– Randomly select a small number of nonrespondents and match their answers
against those of respondents.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
24
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Chapter Ten
Experimental and Ex Post Facto Designs
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
1
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Independent and Dependent Variables
• Variable: any quality or characteristic in a research
investigation that has two or more values.
• Independent Variable: a variable that the researcher studies
as a possible cause of something else; the variable that
the researcher directly manipulates.
• Dependent Variable: a variable that is potentially influenced
by the independent variable; a variable that is influenced
by and to some extent depends on the independent
variable.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
2
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Experimental Designs
• The researcher manipulates the independent variable
and examines its effect on another dependent
variable.
•Cause-and-Effect Relationship: the extent to which one
variable (the cause) influences another variable (the effect).
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
3
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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The Importance of Control
• Internal Validity: the extent to which the design of a research
study and the data it yields allows the researcher to draw
accurate conclusions about cause-and-effect and other
relationships. Without internal validity in experimental
designs, the results are not interpretable.

• Confounding Variables: account for differences in two or
more groups that are not attributable to the particular
treatment or intervention being studied.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
4
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Strategies for Controlling Confounding Variables
1. Keep some things constant.
2. Include a control group.
3. Randomly assign people to groups.
4. Assess equivalence before the treatment with one or
more pretests.
5. Expose participants to all experimental conditions.
6. Statistically control for confounding variables.
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
5
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Categories of Experimental Designs
• Pre-Experimental Designs
• True Experimental Designs
• Quasi-Experimental Designs
• Ex Post Facto Designs
• Factorial Designs
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
6
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Pre-Experimental Designs
• Not possible to show cause-and-effect relationships because
(a) the independent variable doesn’t vary or (b) experimental and
control groups are not comprised of equivalent or randomly
selected individuals.
• Design 1: One-Shot Experimental Case Study (low internal validity)
Group 1
Tx
Obs
• Design 2: One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Group 1
Obs
Tx
Obs
• Design 3: Static Group Comparison
Group 1
Group 2
Tx
—
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Obs
Obs
7
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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True Experimental Designs
• Compared to pre-experimental designs, experimental designs offer a
great degree of control and greater internal validity (Randomness).
• Design 4: Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design (random assignment)
R
A
N
D
O
M
Group 1
Group 2
Obs
Obs
Tx
—
Obs
Obs
Design 5: Solomon Four-Group Design (enhances external validity)
R
A
N
D
O
M
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
Obs
Obs
—–
Tx
–Tx
—
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
• Design 6: Within-Subjects Design (repeated measures)
Group 1
Txa
Txb
Obsa
Obsb
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
8
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Quasi-Experimental Designs
• Randomness is not possible or practical; can’t control for all confounding
variables.
• Design 8: Nonrandomized Control Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Group 1
Group 2
Obs
Obs
Tx
—
Obs
Obs
• Design 9: Simple Time-Series Design
Group 1
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Tx
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
• Design 10: Control Group, Time-Series Design
Group 1
Group 2
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Obs
Obs
Obs
Obs
9
Tx
—
Obs
Obs
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Quasi-Experimental Designs (con’t)
• Design 11: Reversal Time-Series Design
Group 1
Tx
Obs
—
Obs
Tx
Obs
—
Obs
• Design 12: Alternating Treatment Design
• Group 1 Txa Obs — Obs Txb Obs — Obs Txa Obs — Obs Txb Obs
• Design 13: Multiple Baseline Design
Baseline
Treatment
Group 1
——
Obs
Tx
Obs
Baseline
Group 2
——–
Obs
Treatment
Obs
Practical Research: Planning and Design, Ninth Edition
Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Tx
—-
Obs
10
Tx
Obs
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Ex Post Facto Designs
• The researcher identifies events that have already occurred or
conditions that are already present and then collects data to
investigate a possible relationship between these factors and
subsequent characteristics or behaviors.
– like correlational research, ex post facto research involves looking at
existing circumstances;
– like experimental research, ex post facto research has clearly
identifiable independent and dependent variables;
– unlike experimental research, ex post facto research involves no direct
manipulati…
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