SOC 250 Implicit Attitudes Test IAT Project I need 3 pages in 24 hours please follow the instructions and make sure you answers all the questions. of cours

SOC 250 Implicit Attitudes Test IAT Project I need 3 pages in 24 hours please follow the instructions and make sure you answers all the questions. of course no plagiarism and including citations and references. APA format or MLA format Chapter 5
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and
Discrimination
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The Nature of the Problem
Persistence and Change
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Stereotypes, Prejudice, and
Discrimination
• The sins of the past seem to be repeating
• Although much has changed, much also
remains the same
• It is critically important to understand the
complexity and causes of stereotypes,
prejudice, and discrimination
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Harassment of Jews Reaches SevenYear High
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Defining Our Terms
• Racism
– Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s
racial background, or institutional and cultural
practices that promote the domination of one group
over another
• Sexism
– Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s
gender, or institutional or cultural practices that
promote the domination of one gender over another
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Defining Our Terms (cont’d.)
• Stereotypes
– Beliefs that associate a whole group of people with
certain traits or characteristics
• Prejudice
– Negative feelings toward others because of their
membership in certain groups
• Discrimination
– Behavior directed against persons because of their
membership in a particular group
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Racism: Current Forms and Challenges
• Research indicates that racial prejudice and
discrimination have been decreasing in the
United States and in many other countries
over the last 70 years
• Elements of it may once again be on the rise,
particularly in Western Europe
• There are legitimate reasons both to celebrate
racial progress and to acknowledge that
racism remains a fact of life
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Changes in Attitudes Toward Interracial
Marriage
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Two Strikes: Race and Teachers’
Reactions to Children’s Misbehavior
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Measuring Implicit Racism
• Implicit racism
– Racism that operates unconsciously and
unintentionally
• Subtle, indirect measures are used to assess
implicit racism
• Implicit Association Test (IAT)
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Facial Features and Prison Sentences
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Interracial Interactions
• Individuals engaging in intergroup interactions
often
– Activate metastereotypes
– Worry about being seen as consistent with these
stereotypes
• People sometimes try to avoid interracial
interaction for fear of:
– Appearing racist
– Being treated in a racist way
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Colorblind?
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Sexism: Ambivalence, Objectification,
and Double Standards
• Blatant displays of sexism are less socially
acceptable than in the past but they do persist
• Gender stereotypes are distinct in that:
– They are prescriptive, rather than merely
descriptive
– There is a high degree of ingroup and outgroup
member interaction
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Ambivalent Sexism
• Characterized by attitudes about women that
reflect both negative, resentful beliefs/feelings
and affectionate and chivalrous but potentially
patronizing beliefs/feelings
– Hostile sexism
– Benevolent sexism
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Objectification
• Women are often viewed or treated more as
mere bodies or objects and less as fully
functioning human beings
– There is a growing trend to objectify men
• Objectification of women produces negative
effects on their mental and physical health,
academic performance, and social interactions
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Sex Discrimination: Double Standards
and Pervasive Stereotypes
• Sex discrimination continues to exist
• In many parts of the world blatant sexism is
the law of the land
• Sex discrimination during the early school
years may affect career paths in adulthood
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Women in Specific Occupations
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Women in Work Settings in Selected
Countries Around the World
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Beyond Racism and Sexism: Age,
Weight, Sexuality, and Other Targets
• Bias and discrimination may also be based on
other factors
– Age
– Physical disabilities or disfigurements
– Mental health
– Political ideology
– Economic class
– Marital status
– Religion
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Beyond Racism and Sexism (cont’d.)
• Some forms of biases appear to be considered
more acceptable by many people
– Weight
– Sexuality
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Changes in Attitudes Toward Same-Sex
Marriage
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Being Stigmatized
• Stigmatized
– Being persistently stereotyped, perceived as
deviant, and devalued in society because of
membership in a particular social group or
because of a particular characteristic
• We are all targets of other people’s
stereotypes and prejudices
– In what ways are you subjected to stereotyping or
bias?
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Stereotype Threat: A Threat in the Air
• Stereotype threat
– The experience of concern about being evaluated
based on negative stereotypes about one’s group
• Can affect intellectual performance and
identity
– Increasing anxiety, triggering distracting thoughts
– Disidentifying from a domain as not relevant to
self-esteem and identity
• A person does not have to believe in the
stereotype to be affected by it
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Stereotype Threat and Academic
Performance
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Causes and Effects
• Triggers physiological arousal and stress
• Drains cognitive resources
• Causes loss of focus because of attempts to
suppress thoughts about relevant stereotype
• Impairs working memory
• Activates negative thoughts, worry, feeling
dejected, and concerns about avoiding failure
• Elicits neural activity biased toward negative,
self-confirming feedback
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Causes of the Problem
Intergroup, Motivational, Cognitive,
and Cultural Factors
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Social Categories and Intergroup
Conflict
• Social categorization
– The classification of persons into groups on the
basis of common attributes
• In some ways, is natural and adaptive
– Saves time and energy
• Can lead to overestimation of differences
between groups and underestimation of
differences within groups
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Ingroups vs. Outgroups
• Strong tendency to divide people into
ingroups and outgroups
• Consequences
– Exaggerates differences between ingroups and
other outgroups
– Helps to form and reinforce stereotypes
– Outgroup homogeneity effect
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Why Are Outgroups Seen As
Homogeneous?
• Lack of familiarity and lack of diversity of
experiences with outgroup members
• As soon as we categorize an unfamiliar person
as a member of our ingroup or an outgroup,
we immediately process information about
them differently
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Dehumanizing Outgroups
• Perceivers may process outgroup faces
superficially and sometimes more like objects
and lower-order animals than like fellow
humans
• Dehumanization has played a role in atrocities
throughout history
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The Neuroscience of Ingroups and
Outgroups
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Fundamental Motives Between Groups
• A fundamental motive to protect one’s
ingroup and be suspicious of outgroups is
likely to have evolved
– Serves basic motive of self-protection
– More prone to exhibit prejudice toward outgroups
• Flip side: the positive feeling we have toward
being part of an ingroup
– Enhanced sense of control and meaning
– Identity fusion
– Terror management theory
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Motives Concerning Intergroup
Dominance and Status
• Social dominance orientation
– Desire to see one’s ingroup as dominant over
other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural
values that facilitate oppression over other groups
– Promotes self-interest
• System justification theory
– People are motivated (at least in part) to defend
and justify the existing social, political, and
economic conditions
– Protects the status quo
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Stereotype Content Model
• Proposes that the relative status and
competition between groups influences group
stereotypes along the dimensions of
competence and warmth
– Higher relative status is associated with higher
competence
– Greater perceived competition is associated with
lower warmth
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Robber’s Cave
• Sherif and colleagues (1961): study of
competitiveness and cooperation
• Competition with rewards produced hostility
and conflict
– Not resolved by positive information about
competitors or noncompetitive events
• Superordinate goals resulted in peace and
friendship
– Mutual goals that can be achieved only through
cooperation
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Realistic Conflict Theory
• Direct competition for valuable but limited
resources breeds hostility between groups
– e.g., land, jobs, power
• “Realistic” competition for resources may be
imagined
• Relative deprivation
– Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that
one fares poorly compared to others
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Social Identity Theory
• Each of us strives to enhance our self esteem,
which has two components
– A personal identity
– Various social identities that are based on the
groups to which we belong
• Threats to self-esteem heighten the need for
ingroup favoritism
• Expressions of ingroup favoritism enhance
self-esteem
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Social Identity Theory (cont’d.)
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Self-Esteem and Prejudice
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Culture and Social Identity
• Collectivists
– Value connectedness and interdependence with
people and groups around them
– Ties personal identity closely to social identity
– Show some biases favoring their ingroups, but less
likely to enhance their ingroup to boost their own
self-esteem
– May draw sharper distinctions between ingroup
and outgroup members than individualists do
– Tend to have a narrower circle of people they trust
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Culture and Socialization
• Socialization
– Process by which people learn the norms, rules,
and information of a culture or group
– Includes stereotypes, how valued or devalued
various groups are, and which prejudices are
acceptable
– Learned from parents, peers, popular media, and
one’s culture
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Gender Stereotypes
• Gender stereotypes are more likely to be
challenged today, but they persist
• Children form gender-stereotypic beliefs and
preferences around age three and use
stereotypes to judge people
– Neurobiology and evolution contribute to
behavior, but socialization has a strong influence
– The way children are treated reflects stereotyping
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What Mothers Would Say
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Social Role Theory
• Sex differences are magnified by the unequal
social roles that men and women occupy
• Development of social roles
– Division of labor between the sexes emerged as a
result of biological and social factors
– People behave in ways that fit the roles they play,
so men have more physical, social, and economic
power
– Behavioral differences promote perception of men
as dominant and women as domestic “by nature”
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Media Effects
• Pervasive media images have the potential to
perpetuate stereotypes and discrimination
• Media depictions can influence viewers, often
without the viewers realizing it
• Media influences have been implicated in
many current health and behavioral concerns
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How Stereotypes Distort Perceptions
and Resist Change
• Confirmation bias and self-fulfilling prophecies
– Tendency to interpret, seek, and create
information that seems to confirm expectations
– False expectations can cause a person to behave
in ways that confirm the expectations
• Attributions and subtyping
– Explanations about the causes of other people’s
behaviors
– Creates a special category that is an exception to
the rules that define the stereotype
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Automatic Stereotype Activation
• Stereotypes can:
– Be activated implicitly and automatically
– Influence subsequent thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors even in perceivers who are relatively
low in prejudice
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Automatic Stereotype Activation
(cont’d.)
• Factors that make activation more or less
likely
– Prevalence in the culture
– How prejudiced the perceiver is
– Motivation to protect self-esteem
– Intrinsic motivation to avoid applying stereotypes
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The Shooter Bias
• On February 4, 1999, police shot Amadou
Diallo 41 times. He was hit 19 times and killed.
The police mistakenly identified the wallet in
his hand as a gun. He did not have a weapon.
• Evidence in subsequent research indicates
that:
– Stereotypes can alter perceptions about the
presence of weapons and the decision to shoot
– Racial bias in the decision to shoot is not related
to participants’ levels of racial prejudice
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Shoot or Not?
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Reducing the Problem
Social Psychological Solutions
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Intergroup Contact
• Allport’s contact hypothesis
– Direct contact between hostile groups will reduce
intergroup prejudice under certain conditions
• Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)
– Racially separate schools were inherently unequal
and violated the U.S. Constitution
– Contact between black and white students did not
have the intended effect on intergroup attitudes
– Four conditions of contact hypothesis were not
met
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The Contact Hypothesis: Conditions
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Intergroup Contact (cont’d.)
• Pettigrew and Tropp (2000, 2006, 2008) metaanalyses found reliable support for benefits of
intergroup contact in reducing prejudice by:
– Enhancing knowledge about the outgroup
– Reducing anxiety about intergroup contact
– Increasing empathy and perspective taking
• Most effective when at least some of the four
conditions for intergroup contact were met
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Intergroup Friendships and Extended
Contact
• Friendships across groups is one of the best
ways to experience many optimal contact
conditions
– Equal status
– Meaningful one-on-one interactions that extend
across time and settings
– Cooperation toward shared goals
• Friendships are associated with more positive
attitudes and behaviors toward outgroup
members
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The Jigsaw Classroom
• A cooperative learning method used to reduce
racial prejudice through interaction in group
efforts
• Model of how to use interpersonal contact to
promote greater tolerance of diversity
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Shared Identities
• Common Ingroup Identity Model
– When members of different groups recategorize
themselves as members of a more inclusive
superordinate group, intergroup attitudes and
relations can improve
– Recognizing shared categorization allows creation
of a common ingroup identity
• Individuals from minority groups or groups that have
less power in society may feel overwhelmed and
experience a sense of lost identity; may benefit more
from dual-identity categorizations
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Trust, Belonging, and Reducing
Stereotype Threat
• Small changes in situational factors can reduce
stereotype threat
• Successful interventions
– Establish a sense of trust and safety in the
situation
– Reduce feelings of uncertainty about belonging
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Safety in Numbers
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Exerting Self-Control
• Attempting to suppress stereotyping or
control prejudiced actions can take mental
effort
• Factors that may reduce cognitive resources
needed for successful control
– Age
– Low blood sugar (more research needed)
– Being intoxicated
– Being physically tired or sleepy
– Being affected by strong emotion or arousal
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Exerting Self-Control (cont’d.)
• Motivation to control prejudice
– Externally driven: not wanting to appear to others
as prejudiced
– Internally driven: not wanting to be prejudiced
• More likely to be successful at controlling stereotyping
and prejudice
• Still vulnerable to automatic stereotyping and implicit
biases
• More likely to be influenced by antiprejudice messages
that appeal to internal motivations than external
motivations
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Productive and Counterproductive
Antiprejudice Messages
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Changing Cognitions, Cultures,
and Motivations
• Social-cognitive methods can help reduce
stereotyping and prejudice
• Exposure to images and individuals that
reflect diversity can weaken stereotypes
• Motivations, norms, and values change over
time, often as a result of changes in popular
culture
• Peer influence can change sense of norms
• Legislation can change behaviors
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Chapter 4
Perceiving Persons
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Social Perception Defined
• The process by which people come to
understand one another
• We will look at this in four ways
– The “raw data” of social perception
– How we explain and analyze behavior
– How we integrate our observations into a
coherent impression of other persons
– How our impressions can subtly create a distorted
picture of reality
• We will take the perceiver’s vantage point
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Observation
The Elements of Social Perception
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A Person’s Physical Appearance
• People evaluate faces quickly, spontaneously,
and unconsciously
• We infer personal characteristics from the face
– We read traits from faces, as well as read traits
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