CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING | Quick Homework Help

Literature Review
Introduction
Gay (2000) describes culturally responsive teaching as the deployment of cultural knowledge, previous experiences and the performance styles of various students with the main objective of increasing the appropriateness and effectiveness of the learning process. The principal focus of culturally responsive teaching and learning is that teaching is facilitated basing on the strengths of the students. According to Gay, culturally responsive teaching and learning recognizes the legitimacy of cultural backgrounds of diverse ethnic orientations in terms of legacies that has a significant effect on the dispositions, behaviors and learning strategies that students use. In aIDition, cultural responsive learning and teaching takes into consideration the proposition that cultural heritages are a significant component of learning that should be incorporated in the learning curriculum. Another significant characteristic of culturally responsive learning is that it helps in the establishment of bridges in the context of experiences in the learning institutions and home, and also bridges educational concepts and socio-cultural realities. Culturally responsive learning and teaching also makes use of diverse instructional approaches which are linked with various styles of learning. It also helps students in appreciating and praising their cultural backgrounds (Bishop & Glynn, 1999). A notable aspect of culturally responsive teaching and learning is that it integrates multicultural information with various learning and teaching modules that are regularly deployed in the classroom. An outcome of integration of the above characteristics in the classroom context is that the information taught in classroom would be a sign of the diverse ethnic viewpoints and literary genres. For instance, an instruction issued during a mathematics lesson would make use of the daily life concepts like economics, habits of the consumers of the diverse ethnic backgrounds. An effective approach to teach students with diverse learning styles would require the use of diverse range of sensory opportunities including visual, audio and tactile (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
According to Ladson-Billings (1992), teachers that make use of the culturally responsive teaching rely on the development of social, emotional, intellectual and political learning and teaching through the use referents of culture to pass on knowledge, expertise and attitudes to their students. Basing on this perspective, Gay (2000) argues that this approach offers a framework through which teachers can teach the entire child. Hollins (1996) further asserts that education that administered in a culturally responsive manner integrates cognition that is ethnically incorporated, establishes a social situation that enhances learning and results to the creation of knowledge that is culturally rich in the educational curriculum. This implies that culturally responsive teaching and learning extends beyond academic success to incorporate the sustenance of cultural identity and legacy.
Fiona & Vivienne, (2010) argue that culturally responsive teaching and learning is multidimensional in the sense that incorporates diverse things such as the content of the educational curriculum, the relationship between the students and their teachers, techniques deployed in issuing learning instructions, evaluation of the students’ performance and classroom environment. Teachers in the various fields can partner together in order to teach one cultural aspect while students can also be actively involved during the assessment of their performance. Lebak & Tinsley (2010) argue that culturally responsive teaching and learning is empowering since it offers a framework through which students can become better people and successful learners. Empowerment refers to proficiency in terms of academic works, self-efficacy and self inventiveness. Learners should hold the belief that they have the capability to be successful in academic tasks and posses intrinsic motivation that results to perseverance. Teachers too have the obligation of exhibiting ambitions, expectations and offering support for the students towards the accomplishment of academic goals and objectives. This can be realized through the use of acknowledgment retraining, offering personal resources and administration of personal assistance, celebration of both self and group successes and encouraging positive beliefs towards individual capabilities.
Culturally responsive teaching and learning tend to be transformative because it does integrate traditional approaches to education with the students of color (Gay, 2000). This implies that it maintains respect for cultures and previous experiences of the learners and then deploys these approaches to facilitate the process of learning and teaching. In aIDition, culturally responsive teaching and learning takes into consideration the current strengths and their respective achievements with the main objective of developing the student capabilities. For instance, verbal creativity and telling narratives is a distinctive in some of the African Americans who are involved in social interactions that are not formal, this is usually perceived as a gift and can be deployed by teachers and instructors to improve the writing skills of their students. In aIDition, students usually group themselves in accordance to their ethnic backgrounds, implying that culturally responsive teaching and learning facilitates co-operative learning among the various ethnic groups (Hollins, 1996). Gay supports the assertion that for education to be considered transformative, it must be used in the empowerment of groups that are marginalized. Education that is transformative helps the learners to develop their skills, expand their knowledge base and develop their social values in order to help them undertake reflective decisions in the social, political and economic context. Emancipatory is also an important aspect of culturally responsive learning and teaching since if provides the students with guidelines that are necessary for having an understanding that there is no single approach to gaining knowledge. In aIDition, it embraces the perception that knowledge cannot be gained basing on the mainstream approaches of knowledge acquisition (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). There are diverse models that attempt to assess the effectiveness of integrating culture with education. Most of these models were based on studies conducted by educators and psychologists in the context of Maori, New Zealand. These models are discussed in the following sections.
The educulture model
The educulture model, developed by Angus Mac Farlane focuses on the establishing culturally learning environments that are safe (Ted et al, 2007). The educulture model comprises of five aspects of classroom management including building relationships, ethic of bonding, teacher effectiveness, ethic of care and general morale, pulse and tone of the classroom. The aspect of relationships aims at the establishment of relationships based on kinship, common interests and common neighborhood. Teachers engage in this aspect through having individual knowledge of the students and establishment of opportunities for development of teacher-student trust. Self-determination aims at enhancing the competence of the teacher (Mac Farlane, 2004). Cultural connectedness is established using the ethics of care, while unity and bonding aims at the establishment of inclusiveness in the classroom. Effective implementation of this approach requires the use authentic knowledge and data regarding ethnic orientations of their students and ethnic affiliations that are within the accessibility of the students. This in turn results to psychological and intellectual liberation that can facilitate diverse improvements such as concentration on academic work, precise and perceptive thinking and improved interpersonal skills (Macfarlane, 2004b).
A study conducted by Mc Farlane revealed that there is poor instruction quality for most of the behavioral students, teachers and facilitators lacked relevant expertise regarding the strategies and assumed that they lacked the capability to initiate a change, and the most of the education programs lay more emphasis on behavior toward the exclusion of academic works. In aIDition, the studies showed that teachers and facilitators were not aware and had little knowledge regarding culture, putting them into a cultural lag context and culture was not given a consideration in the educational curriculum (Macfarlane, 2009c). The deployment of educultural wheel has the principal objective of enhancing teacher-student interactions. Research studies have reported that the educultural wheel has been beneficial to learning by the Maori students from all cultures.
The Te Wheke Model
The Te Wheke Model was proposed by Rose Pere, and it makes use of the octopus symbol to represent the various dimensions of health using the tentacles. The elements of The Te Wheke Model includes spirituality, mental health, extended family, the universe, individual and extended family uniqueness, the principle for life sustenance in individuals and objects, cultural objects and emotions and senses. The octopus’s body and head denotes the entire family unit, while the eyes denote the whole well-being of an individual and family (Durie, 1994).
A study conducted by Ladson-Billings regarding the issuance of learning instructions in elementary institutions revealed that the values were being adhered to. In cases whereby learners were significantly involved collectively in the creation of academic and cultural excellence, there were increased levels of expressions of anticipations by the learners, increased skills acquisition and an improvement in interpersonal relations among the students (Irwin, 1984). A notable observation in the studies is that culturally responsive learning and teaching reflected high levels of assistance and encouragement by the students themselves since the attitudes of the students were more associated with an instance of an extended family. This implies that students have accountability as an element of the larger group of students since it is the concern of every student to ensure that their colleagues are successful in terms of academics and culture. In such a learning scenario characterized by an academic community, teachers can effectively aIDress the students’ requirements taking into consideration their aspects of human dignity, sense of belonging and individual self concepts (Macfarlane, 2009c).
Irwin’s depiction of wholeness
According to the Maori perspective of the world, the mind, body and the spirit cannot be separated, and they are interconnected in order to depict the aspect of wholeness. According to Irwin, an integration of the body, mind and spirit results to wholeness. A combination of the body and mind minus the spirit implies a loss of wholeness. The Irwin’s (1984) depiction of the aspect of wholeness is based on psychological health (Te taha hinengaro), spiritual health (Te taha wairua) and physical health-Te taha tinana (Irwin, 1984). Psychological health puts more emphasis on emotions. An example of such approach is that a person who is not satisfied and happy with his career may reveal this by being physically ill (Irwin, 1984).
Spiritual health on the other hand focuses on spiritual awareness, which is a vital prerequisite for being healthy and maintaining a status of well-being. The Te Whare Tapa Wha model suggests that lack of spiritual awareness can result to absence of well being, which in turn makes an individual susceptible to physical illness (Irwin, 1984). The aspect of spiritual health in the model reviews the associations that an individual has with the environment, cultural heritage and people. Physical health is mainly concerned with bodily health, growth and development, and draws majorly on the well being of the body. An individual that has emotional stress suffers physical health. The different pain experienced in the different parts of the body implies that the body is revealing what is taking place in the conscious and unconscious mind. . While Irwin’s perceptive regarding the holistic view can be argued to be an effective one, his approach was extended by Durie (1994) to include family health in order to ensure completeness. Durie (1994) developed the Te Whare Tapa Wha model that is based on the four walls of the house. This model is discussed in the following section.
Te Whare Tapa Wha model
The Te Whare Tapa Wha model is a wellness model developed by Mason Durie (1994), with its scope of applicability involving psychological and physical well being. According to Durie, the health of the Maori is determined by the fundamental beliefs regarding life, which includes psychological health (Te taha hinengaro), spiritual health (Te taha wairua), physical health (Te taha tinana), and family health represented by Te taha whanau (Durie, 1994). According to the Te Whare Tapa Wha model, the mind and the body cannot be separated, and that communication that involves the use of emotions is more important compared to mere exchange of words (Durie, 1994). The incorporation of the aspect of family health is important since it facilitates the use the genealogy (whakapapa). Genealogy refers to the means that offers a framework for interpreting the realm of individual beings towards the realm of both the dead and gods. Barlow (1991) argues that genealogy form the foundation for knowledge organization regarding creation and development of all aspects of human life. Barlow further argues that an important aspect of the stated development must entail human development. Basing on this approach, the development elements that are perceived socially, economically, politically and even socially are the core to Maori worldview, regarding their world and their perceptions and their beliefs. Durie (1994) argues that traditional beliefs and values are usually depicted within the social and tribal orientations of a community, citing Maori as an example, they are central to the development of all aspects of human life. Taking into account the Maori viewpoints regarding human development is important essential because it stresses to scholars and educators the role that culture, history and mythology has on education. Understanding cultural values, traditions and history helps in understanding the way of life of particular people, which is a core tool overcoming the classroom barriers to effective teaching and learning (Ministry of Education, 2010).
Durie argues that the family health is a core unit of the society, and its significance varies from person to person. The beliefs and expectations of the family can have significant influences on the learning process of students. Durie points that focusing on the knowledge of oneself and developmental potential increases the probability of undertaking successful transitions, educational learning and guidance. The development of self-awareness through cultural heritage is a vital requirement in the establishment of internal peace in all the dimensions of life including academic tasks and learning.
Vygotsky Zone of proximal development
The Zone of proximal development model was developed by Lev Vygotsky, who was against the deployment of educational tests that are knowledge-based for increasing the intelligence of the learner (Chaiklin, 2003). In this perspective, Vygotsky argues that it is better for a learner to determine his individual problem solving capabilities and one ability to solve problems under assistance instead of administering tests to evaluate the level of student intelligence. According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is described as the difference that exists between what a learner can accomplish in the absence of external help and what he can achieve using external help. Vygotsky argues that child usually imitates an example of an adult and increases his capability to undertake certain tasks without being assisted. In a comprehensive manner, Vygotsky defined the zone of proximal development as the distance that exists between the actual developmental level in due to self-determining problem solving and the potential developmental level due to adult guidance or partnering with other peers that are competent (Wells, 1999). With this retrospect, Vygotsky was of the opinion that it was the role of the teachers and other educators to offer children experience which were within their ZPD, which in turn plays a significant role in enhancing individual learning. The Zone of Proximal Development model has been subsequently modified since its original inception. The aspect of scaffolding has a close association with the ZPD model despite the fact that Vygotsky did not incorporate it in his model; it was integrated by socio-cultural theorists who incorporated the Vygotsky’s model in education. In this regard, scaffolding is perceived as a situation whereby the teacher offers the required assistance to the learner and gradually withdraws the assistance as soon it becomes needless. It also entails the administration of interactive guidance in order enhance the learning process of the child through the use of positive interactions and questions that are focused (Lefrancois, 1997). Most of the instructional programs were established basing on the Zone of Proximal Development Model, such as reciprocal teaching and dynamic assessment. Despite the fact that the ZPD model developed by Vygotsky were only applicable in the development of a learner’s capability in problem solving, Tharp and Gallimore (1988) consent that Vygotsky’s model can be extended to evaluate other areas associated with the proficiency and skills. Some of the areas of applicability of the ZPD include cultural, skill-oriented and individual zones. The fundamental implication of Vygotsky’s ZPD is that teaching should put more emphasis on the development of psychological functions instead of focusing on the functions that already exist. Critics of the Vygotsky’s model argue that his approach was metaphorical and rhetorical and does not apply well in the context of theoretical development. In aIDitions, the model has been argued as an outcome of the contacts between the child and adult, such propositions require an in depth analysis in order to be plausible in relation the initial model proposed by Vygotsky. However, the underlying fact is ZPD is not an outcome of adult-child interaction, but it is the contact that offers the required conditions that are needed to recognize their existence and their developmental level. Despite this, Chaiklin (2003) points out there are diverse issues relating the Vygotsky’s ZPD model that require cpmprehensive discussion and analysis such as the methodological basis of the development of the theory, historical context of the development of the model, issues in the theoritical formulations, the underlying inferences for the theories regarding instruction design, and inferences for teaching diverse puplis in a classroom.
Conclusion
Classroom management is usually difficult, especially in scenarios whereby students make use of diverse learning styles and have different cultural backgrounds. It is in such cases that the aspect of culturally responsive teaching and learning comes in handy. The various models have their constraints and strengths regarding their applicabiility in academic learning. A universal element is that they focus on the aspect of holistic wellness as a core requiremement for effective learning and teaching. In aIDition, most of the models are development models of initial models with the exception of educulture model and Vygotsky’s ZPD model. Irwin’s depiction of wholeness was extended by the Te Whare Tapa Wha model to incorporate the aspect of family wellness. The Te Wheke Model offers a comprehensive aproach to the Irwin’s model and Te Whare tapa wha. A notable difference regarding the above developmental models and Vygotsky’s ZPD and educlture model is that the latter incorporates aims at enhancing teacher-student relationships while the developmental models base on cultural approaches to depict individual wellness. A further insight is required in order to analyze the applicability of this models to culturally responsive teaching and learning.

References
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