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Intimate Partner Violence
Causes, Effects and Prevention
Name
Institution

Abstract
One of the most common forms of domestic violence is intimate partner violence (IPV). This paper seeks to describe the incidence of IPV in interpersonal relationships, especially those of a heterosexual nature. Some of the main causes of IPV are highlighted in the paper, such as social disenfranchisement of women, who are the most typical victims. Specific focus is placed on those causes deemed to be the most common, with the primary aim of assisting in the establishment of appropriate remedial measures. The paper concludes that, although IPV is a grave social concern, there are effective countermeasures available, which only need to be implemented properly for the problem to be reversed.
Keywords: intimate partner violence, interpersonal relationships, disenfranchisement

Intimate Partner Violence
Causes, Effects and Prevention
Introduction
As one of the most common types of domestic violence, IPV takes on the nature of ultimate betrayal, especially for the victims, since the parties involved share an intimate relationship. This might be the case with a husband and wife or any persons intending to be, currently or previously, in such intimate relationships (Cronholm, Fogarty, Ambuel & Harrison, 2011). In instances of IPV, the perpetrator of the violence intends to either control the victim or punish him or her. In many of the cases, the perpetrator is male, while the victim is female, and they are usually engaged in heterosexual relationships. Nevertheless, IPV is not restricted to these kinds of interpersonal relationships. Research shows that cases of IPV are broad-spectrum social disorders that affect groups of people across all forms of intimate interpersonal relationships, whether heterosexual or otherwise.
Despite the complexity of IPV as a form of domestic violence, there seems to be some identifiable social and demographic risk factors that tend to predispose people in intimate relationships to the vice. According to Jewkes (2002), women are more likely to suffer at the hands of their male intimate partners in heterosexual relationships than any other demographic. This means that gender has a lot to do with the progression of IPV in intimate relationships, as well as being indicative of the directionality of the incidental violence. This is to say that it is easier to tell who the perpetrator and the victim in heterosexual cases are. Similarly, social and economic factors, such as poverty and financial empowerment, are seen as contributive to the rising cases of IPV. This is especially the case in heterosexual relationships where women are economically disenfranchised.
IPV tends to bring about various negative effects in the lives of the people involved. For instance, abused persons typically suffer the health sequelae of continued subjection to physical and psychological violence (Campbell, 2002), which range from bodily injury to post-traumatic stress disorder. In light of the foregoing facts, there are various remedies to the vice capable of aIDressing both its root causes as well as remedying its negative effects. For example, victims can be provided with effective care solutions by relevant authorities and risk groups being empowered to either prevent or escape from situations that might catalyze IPV.
Discussion
Causes
There are several possible causes of IPV among intimate partners, with most of them being associated with conditions of increased risk within the relationships. They include poverty, socio-cultural disenfranchisement, conflict, alcohol, and social norms. The following is a brief discourse on how each of these factors might contribute to increased cases of IPV.
1. Poverty
The scarcity of financial resources among people engaged in intimate social relationships tends to bring forth conditions of psychological distress. This is especially the case among people living in low-income nations such as those in the developing parts of the world. Most often this happens because the men with fewer financial resources also tend to have fewer avenues, through which to release their stress. As their stress levels continue to increase, Jewkes (2002) suggests that the men undertake to defend their attenuated form of control through a stereotypical expression of masculinity by hitting their female partners. This physical violence is, however, only a part of the IPV problem in such instances. Given the levels of economic dependence of women in such relationships, they tend to suffer psychological violence; they have to do whatever their male partners decide as the latter seek to hold on to whatever is left of their fleeting masculinity at the time.
2. Socio-cultural Disenfranchisement
Another case in point, which is related to the foregoing aspect of poverty, is that of social marginalization among some women. In some instances, women are denied access to basic education in contrast with men, for whom education is viewed as a basic right. In such cases, the women are placed at the lowest ranks of society, which makes them vulnerable to other forms of unfair treatment. For instance, Jewkes (2002) states that the men in such situations tend to look down upon their women. This then leads the men to establish skewed arrangements within the relationship, in which the women are subordinates.
3. Conflict
People in interpersonal relationships typically go through moments of disagreements and arguments. In some relationships, however, these moments of disagreements take an aggressive turn. Similarly, some relationships experience periods of frequent arguments. According to Jewkes (2002), physical violence is used as a strategy of winning an argument. This means that one of the parties, typically the man, takes to physical violence as a way of asserting his position and authority. These arguments can be about anything, from intimacy to finances, but if the parties involved are predisposed to severe anger, the arguments can escalate to physical violence.
4. Alcohol
Alcohol consumption and violence are widely associated with each other, even outside the context of IPV. Nevertheless, their relationship is much more pronounced in the case of IPV, given the interpersonal nature of the situation. According to Jewkes (2002), excessive consumption of alcohol among both men and women is associated with reduced inhibitions and impaired judgment. In the first case, a person engaged in an intimate interpersonal relationship might be harboring thoughts of hurting his or her partner but lacking the motivation to carry them out. However, after consuming alcohol, all the inhibitions and rational restraint are removed. This is also the case with impaired judgment, in which the perpetrator might end up thinking and believing that his or her actions are somehow justified.
5. Social Norms
A more recent dimension of IPV is that associated with social conditioning. Jewkes (2002) argues that some instances of IPV in the community can be understood by looking at the incidence of the vice within the family. For example, if a boy grows up in a household where his father abuses his mother, he is most likely going to repeat the same behavior with his own partner. Similarly, for the girl who grows up in a home where the same events occur, she might end up putting herself in a relationship where she gets abused.
Effects
The effects of IPV are largely confined to two broad spectra: physical and mental health. The following is a brief account of each of these broad categories, with much emphasis being laid on data available from the United States.
1. Physical Health Effects
Most cases of IPV entail women as the victims and their male partners as the perpetrators (Campbell, 2002). Physical injuries, such as trauma to the head, face, and neck, are the typical consequences of IPV as reported by the victims to their physicians. Few of these injuries end up being life-threatening, though there have been reports of acute trauma being sustained by the victims. In aIDition to the traumatic physical injuries, there are also incidences of psychosomatic health problems directly associated with IPV.
For example, some of the victims report migraines that do not appear to have any functional origin, thereby indicating a likely connection to the psychological aspects of the violence. In other cases, victims have reported gastrointestinal complications that include loss of appetite as well as irritable bowel syndrome. Finally, IPV has been associated with sexual assault, especially on female victims (Campbell, 2002). This includes instances of forced sexual intercourse leading to a wide range of gynecological problems such as chronic pelvic pain.
2. Mental Health Effects
IPV is generally associated with the comorbid psychological disorders of depression and post-traumatic stress disorders. In the first case of depression, women reporting the problem also tend to be doubly susceptible to the stressors of the circumstances that typically lead to IPV. For example, the women could be developing depression as a result of extant financial constraints within the household. Such situations only serve to make the condition worse for the victim. According to Campbell (2002), the actual directionality of the causal relationship between IPV and depression needs further study. In the case of post-traumatic stress disorder, the victims of IPV report higher incidences of the condition than people without any exposure to the vice. Some of the victims also report suicidal tendencies.
Prevention
Appropriate measures for aIDressing the problem of IPV are essentially related to the vice’s primal causes. In this case, finding methods of preventing IPV has to involve an exhaustive assessment of its probable root causes. With regard to some of the causes outlined above, the following is a brief discussion of two categories of possible intervention measures.

1. Law Enforcement
One of the most direct measures of intervention entails the enactment of proper legislation and the enforcement thereof. Since the most vulnerable social demographic in the case of IPV are women, legislation must be enacted to protect them against the predatory nature of would-be perpetrators (Cronholm, 2011). The police must be vigilant, especially in the knowledge that some of the victims might be unwilling or unable to come forward with their predicament. The relevant authorities, and most especially those in healthcare, must engage in sensitization campaigns to ensure that women are made aware of their rights under the law when they find themselves in such situations. Victims should also be encouraged to take matters in their own hands by seeking out legal advice, probably through the established support groups.
2. Women Empowerment
Given the nature of some IPV cases, women should be empowered both financially and socially. In the first case, financial independence would mean that the women become capable of escaping the IPV. This is because they would no longer be dependent on their partners for financial support. For the most part, this is applicable in the developing world where women are almost entirely dependent on men for their financial wellbeing (Jewkes, 2002). Programs, such as women’s groups and social welfare initiatives, would go a long way at helping such women take control of their lives, starting with their finances. In the same light, retrogressive social and cultural norms, such as skewed education policies, must be revised to give women more latitude with their decision-making.
Conclusion
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a complex form of domestic violence that is typically incidental in heterosexual relationships. In such settings, the woman is usually the victim as a result of a skewed economic and social order. There are several causes of IPV, most of which are related to the risk factors that tend to predispose some people in intimate relationships to the vice. For example, poverty can be a strong catalyst of IPV, whereby the man might feel as though he is losing control over his masculinity. Similarly, the prevalent social structures in some countries establish women as subordinates and are, therefore, detrimental to their ability to protect themselves in the face of IPV.
Despite this negative outlook with respect to IPV, there are available counteractive measures. These measures typically target women, who are the primary victims. The police, in conjunction with healthcare providers, can change the legislative framework to allow women to escape IPV even before they fall victim. Similarly, social and economic reforms can be instituted to enable women to have more control over their decision-making.

References
Campbell, J.C. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet, 359, 1331-1336.
Cronholm, P.F., Fogarty, C., Ambuel, B. & Harrison, S.L. (2011). Intimate partner violence. American Family Physician, 83(10), 1166-1172.
Jewkes, R. (2002). Intimate partner violence: Causes and prevention. The Lancet, 359, 1423-1439.